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1H..IU 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  1— GOVERNMENT  BUILDING  AT  KUALA  LUMPUR,  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE 

BUREAU  OF  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 

JULIUS  KLEIN,  DIRECTOR 


SPECIAL  AGENTS  SERIES— No.  218 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES 
AND  BRITISH  MALAYA 

A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK 

By 

JOHN  A.  FOWLER 

Ok 

Trade  Commissioner  ^ 


PRICE,  $1.00 

Sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office 

Washington,  D.  C. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1S23 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 
CHESTNUT  «m,MASSL 


180866 


I 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  submittal - 4 _  xiit 

Introduction _ 1 

Netherlands  East  Indies _  1 

Position  and  area _  1 

Historical  background _  2 

Political  divisions _  3 

Trade  routes  and  distances -  5 

Topography _ 5 

Climate -  6 

Natural  resources -  7 

Java _  7 

Outer  Possessions _  8 

Organization  of  the  Central  Government _  8 

Organization  of  the  provincial  governments _  9 

Self-governing  communities _  10 

Administration  of  the  law _  11 

Administration  of  justice _  11 

Courts _  12 

Distribution  of  population -  12 

Oriental  peoples  of  the  Netherlands  Indies _  13 

Tribal  divisions  and  their  economic  status _  14 

Java  and  Madoera -  14 

Sumatra _  17 

Borneo - 21 

Asiatic  immigrant^  in  Borneo -  22 

Celebes _  22 

The  Moluccas _  24 

Timor _  25 

Bali  and  Lombok _  26 

New  Guinea _ : _  27 

Labor _ , -  28 

Contract  labor  law -  30 

Wages  paid  contract  coolies  and  other  labor _  33 

Emigration -  34 

Colonization - 34 

Foreign  commerce _  34 

Statistics  and  their  relative  values _  37 

British  Malaya - - -  39 

Position  and  area -  39 

Historical  background _  39 

Political  divisions -  40 

Government _  40 

Ports  of  Singapore  and  Penang _  41 

Topography -  42 

Climate _ 42 

Natural  resources _  43 

People  of  British  Malaya _ : _  44 

Labor _ . _  45 

m 


IV 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Transportation _  46 

Rivers  and  canals - ! - . -  46 

Harbors _  46 

State  railways  and  tramways -  47 

Privately  owmed  railways  and  tramways -  49 

Netherland  Indies  Railroad  Co _  49 

Deli  Railway  Co -  49 

Tramways _  50 

Proposed  railway  extensions - 51 

Railways  of  British  Malaya - ’ -  52 

Shipping  in  Netherlands  East  Indies -  53 

Status  of  American  ships  in  the  interport  trade__ _  54 

Shipping  in  the  Straits  Settlements -  54 

Location  of  East  Indies  ports  with  respect  to  world  trade _  55 

New  York  via  Suez  and  Panama _ 55 

New  Orleans  via  Suez  and  Panama _ _ _  56 

San  Francisco  and  Port  Townsend _  56 

London  and  continental  European  ports _  56 

Steamship  routes _  56 

Business  organization  for  steamship  operation _  57 

Commercial  and  shipping  affiliations -  58 

Conferences  of  shipping  companies -  60 

European  Conference -  60 

Straits  Homeward  Conference _  61 

Batavia  Conference - 61 

Dutch-British-New  York  Conference _  62 

Coastwise  and  feeder  services -  62 

Feeder  lines _ 62 

Possible  routes  for  feeder  services _ . _  64 

Steamship  services - 65 

Steamship  lines  operating  through  Java  ports _ 69 

Agricultural  products -  70 

Character  of  cultivation - 70 

Land  laws -  70 

Control  of  land -  70 

Sugar -  71 

History  of  sugar  cultivation  in  Java _  73 

System  of  land  leasing  and  rotation  of  crops _  74 

Sugar-cane  cultivation - : -  75 

Costs  of  production  of  sugar _  78 

Cultivation  costs  of  a  sugar  estate-'! _  79 

Exports  of  sugar _  80 

Grades  of  sugar _ 81 

Yereeniging  Javasuiker  Producenten _ _ 1 _  82 

First  and  second  hand  markets _  83 

Contract  of  sale _ 84 

Copra  and  coconut  oil _ 84 

Area  and  extent  of  coconut  cultivation _  86 

Copra  grades - 88 

Sales  and  export  methods _  89 

Contract  for  sale  of  copra _ 1 _  90 

Exports  of  copra  and  coconut  oil _  91 

Oil  mills _  94 

Market  for  copra  cake _  96 


CONTENTS 


V 


Agricultural  products — Continued.  '  Page. 

Oil-containing  seeds _  96 

Sesame  seed _ ^ _  96 

Soya  beans _  97 

Kapok  seeds _  97 

Castor  beans _ _ _ _  98 

Peanuts _ 98 

Rubber _ _  99 

Cultivation  of  rubber _  100 

Planters’  societies _ 101 

Areas  planted  in  rubber _ _ 102 

The  world’s  rubber  acreage _  104 

Chemicals  used  in  the  prevention  and  cure  of  diseases _  104 

Organization  of  a  rubber,  coffee,  and  sisal  estate  in  east  Java _  106 

Area,  climate,  production,  and  production  costs _  108 

Production  statistics _ _ «. _  109 

Estate  expenditures _  110 

Exportation  of  rubber _  111 

Rubber  exports  from  the  Straits  Settlements _  112 

Grades  of  rubber _ 114 

Singapore  auction  sales _ r _  116 

Prices  of  latex  cr$pe _ . _  117 

Market  review _ 119 

Publications  on  rubber _  120 

Coffee _  120 

Grades  of  coffee— _  120 

Acreage  and  varieties  of  coffee  grown _  122 

Cultivation  of  coffee _ _T -  124 

Cost  of  coffee  production  on  an  estate  in  east  Java _ . _  125 

Estimated  cost  of  development  of  a  coffee  estate _  126 

Shipments  of  coffee _ _ _ _ _  128 

Exports  of  Robusta  coffee _  129 

Exports  of  Java  (Arabica)  coffee _ ■ _  129 

Exports  of  Liberia  coffee _  130 

Tea _  130 

Grades  of  tea _ > _  131 

The  tea  market _  131 

Exports  of  tea - 133 

Tobacco _  134 

Tobacco  cultivation _ 134 

System  of  cultivation  in  the  Yorstenlanden _  135 

Java  tobacco  grades -  137 

Exports  of  tobacco -  138 

Deli  leaf _ 139 

Crop  restriction,  costs,  and  selling  prices _  140 

Tapioca - : -  141 

Grades _ 141 

Cultivation  and  milling  of  tapioca _  142 

Exports  and  imports  of  tapioca _ 143 

Sago - 145 

Quinine  and  cinchona  bark -  146 

Selling  methods -  148 

Fibers - .• -  149 

Kapok _ * _  149 

Exports  of  kapok _  150 

Crop  seasons  and  principal  producing  districts _  151 

Agreement  used  on  Soerabaya  kapok  market: _  154 


VI 


CONTENTS 


Agricultural  products — Continued. 

Fibers — Continued.  Page. 

Cotton _ 153 

Sisal,  cantilla,  and  manila  hemp _  151 

Production  and  costs  of  sisal  on  an  estate  in  east  Java _  155 

Coir _  156 

Spices _  156 

Pepper _  157 

Black  pepper _  157 

White  pepper _  158 

Pepper  trade  of  British.  Malaya _  159 

Chili  peppers _  160 

Nutmegs  and  mace _  160 

Cloves _ * _ _ _  163 

Cinnamon  barks— _  164 

Cardamoms _ 165 

Areca  nuts _ 165 

Medicinal  plants _ 166 

Cubebs _ 166 

Coca  leaves  and  cocaine _  166 

Cacao  and  vanilla  beans _  167 

Natural  indigo _  167 

Pineapple  industry _  168 

Essential  oils _ 169 

Citronella _ 169 

Cajeput  oil _  170 

Patchouli  leaves  and  oil _  170 

Other  essential  oils _ - _  171 

Hides  and  skins _ , _  171 

Cow  and  buffalo  hides _  174 

Sheepskins _  175 

Goat  and  kid  skins _  175 

Deerskins _  176 

Forest  products _ i _  177 

Rattans _ _ : _  177 

Grades  of  rattan _  178 

Exports  of  rattan _  180 

Gutta-percha  and  guttajoolatong _ 180 

Copal  and  damar _ 182 

Shipments  of  copal _  183 

Shipments  of  damar _  185 

Grading  of  damar _ _ _ _ _  187 

Gum  benzoe  or  benjamin _  187 

Cutch -  188 

Uses  of  cutch _  189 

Tanning  materials _ , _  189 

Oil-containing  nuts _  190 

Mineral  products  and  hydraulic  power _  191 

Mineral  products _  191 

Tin  mining  in  Netherlands  East  Indies _  191 

Exports  o£  tin  and  tin  ore _  194 

Tin  mining  in  British  Malaya _  194 

Occurrence  of  tin _  195 

Methods  of  mining  tin _  196 

Cost  of  mining _  198 


CONTENTS.  VII 

Mineral  products  and  hydraulic  power — Continued. 

Mineral  products — Conti^ed. 

Tin  mining  in  British  Malaya — Continued.  Page. 

Metallurgy _  1 99 

Smelting _ 1 _  199 

Labor _  200 

Capital  invested  in  mining _  201 

Future  mining  prospects _ 202 

Tin  grades _  202 

Taxes  and  duty  on  tin _  202 

Other  mining  in  British  Malaya _  203 

Coal  mining _  204 

Petroleum  production _  206 

Gold _  207 

Iron _ _ _  208 

Other  minerals _  209 

Mining  laws _  210 

Titles  to  mining  properties _  211 

Hydraulic  power _  212 

Present  and  future  utilization  of  hydraulic  power _  212 

Fisheries  products _  217 

Shells  of  the  Netherlands  Indies _  217 

Shell  trade  of  the  Straits  Settlements _  218 

Industries -  220 

Number  in  operation _ 220 

Trade  in  fiber  hats _  224 

Increase  in  prices _ 224 

Exports  of  pandan  and  bamboo  hats _  225 

Trade  with  the  United  States - 225 

Industries  of  British  Malaya _  225 

Import  commodities -  226 

Cotton  goods -  226 

Importation  of  cotton  piece  goods _  226 

Unbleached  cottons _  229 

Bleached  cottons _  231 

Sarongs,  kains,  slendangs,  and  kapellas _  231 

Fancies _  231 

Business  organizations -  233 

Kinds  of  clothing  worn  by  natives _  235 

Market  review -  236 

Cotton-yarn  trade -  238 

Cotton  trade  of  British  Malaya _  238 

*  Iron  and  steel - 239 

Principal  factors  in  Netherlands  East  Indies  trade _  239 

Construction  companies _  240 

Review  of  the  market _ 241 

Imports  of  iron  and  steel _  241 

Rails  and  fittings _  244 

Bridges  and  parts  thereof _  246 

Well  casing,  tubing,  and  pipe— _  247 

Galvanized-iron  roofing _ _ _  248 

Telephone,  telegraph,  and  other  iron  wire _  250 

Electric  cables _  251 

Rounds,  flats,  sheets,  and  plates _  251 


Vni  CONTENTS. 


Import  commodities — Continued. 

Iron  and  steel — Continued. 

Imports  of  iron  and  steel — Continued.  Page. 

Wire  nails _  253 

Spikes _ _ _  254 

Other  iron  and  steel  products _  255 

Wire  rope _ 256 

British  Malaya  imports  of  iron  and  steel _  257 

Shapes  and  structural  steel _  258 

Box  strapping  and  hoop  iron _ 259 

Iron  pipe  and  wire  rope _  259 

Motor-vehicle  market _  260 

Introduction _  260 

Commercial  divisions  and  roads _ 1 _  261 

Number  of  motor  vehicles  in  Netherlands  East  Indies _  265 

Number  of  motor  vehicles  in  British  Malaya _  265 

Importation  of  motor  vehicles _  266 

Motor  cycles _ 267 

Dealer  organization _  268 

Credits _  268 

Advertising _  269 

American  sales  organization, _  270 

The  tire  trade _ 271 

Imports  of  tires _  271 

Standard  sizes  of  tires _ 272 

Foodstuffs _  273 

Milk _ 273 

Canned  milk _  273 

Condensed  milk _  274 

Sterilized  milk _  275 

Canned  meats _  276 

Canned  vegetables _ 277 

The  fish  trade _ 280 

Canned  fruit _  281 

Dried  fruit _ _ _ . _  283 

Wheat  flour _  284 

Corn  meal _ ^ _  285 

Biscuits _  286 

Ham _  287 

Chemicals -  287 

Principal  chemical  products  in  demand _  288 

Chemicals  for  combating  diseases  of  rubber  trees _ 303 

Paper  trade - 303 

Newsprint  paper _  303 

Writing  and  book  papers _  304 

Old  newspapers _ : _  305 

Printers’  and  lithographers’  supplies _ _ _  306 

Inks _  306 

Type,  and  linotype  and  stereotype  metal _  307 

Agricultural  implements _  308 

Hand  tools _  308 

Use  of  the  patchoel  or  chunkoel _  308 

Alang  alang  forks,  arits,  and  chopping  knives _  308 

The  chunkoel  of  British  Malaya _  309 

Other  tools _  309 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Import  commodities — Continued. 

Agricultural  implements — Continued.  Page. 

Tractors _  310 

Small  tractor  suitable  for  tobacco  cultivation -  311 

Superiority  of  tractor  for  clearing  the  jungle -  311 

Hoad  rollers _  311 

Market  possibilities _  312 

Other  machinery _  313 

Household  supplies _ 313 

Oil  and  gas  stoves  and  heaters— _  313 

Electric  bulbs  and  lamps _ 314 

Gas  and  oil  lamps - 315 

Aluminum  ware  and  earthenware _  315 

Glassware _ _ 1 -  317 

Rice  bowls,  frying  pans,  and  cooking  utensils _ 317 

Filters  and  refrigerators _  317 

Hardware  and  related  articles _ : _ _  318 

Axes  and  adzes - - - - - —  318 

Hammers  and  sledges _  319 

Saws _ _  320 

Carpenters’  tools  other  than  saws  and  hammers _  321 

Blacksmiths’  tocds _  322 

Threading  and  pipe  tools _  322 

Cutlery _  323 

Brass,  galvanized,  and  painted  wire  cloth _  324 

Enameled  ware _ /. _  324 

Buckets _ . _  325 

Locks,  hinges,  bolts,  and  screws _  326 

Carriage  hardware _ : _  328 

Axles _  329 

Sanitary  goods _  330 

Arms,  ammunition,  and  explosives _  330 

Bicycles _  330 

Safes  and  cash  boxes _  332 

Scales _  332 

Fire  brick  and  tiles _  333 

Belting _  333 

Engine-room  and  mill  and  mine  supplies _  334 

Automatic  fire-extinguishing  apparatus _  335 

Roofing -  335 

Miscellaneous  hardware  supplies _ _  335 

Sundries _ 338 

Matches _  338 

Washing  soaps _ : _ _  339 

Toilet  soaps  and  toilet  articles _ 1 _  339 

Office  equipment _ 341 

School  supplies _ 343 

Hospital  supplies _ _ _  344 

Clothing -  345 

Men’s  clothing  and  haberdashery _  345 

Women’s  wear _ 346 

Boots,  shoes,  and  shoemakers’  supplies _  347 

Traveling  bags -  348 

Purchasing  divisions _  349 


X 


CONTENTS 


Pace. 


Business  factors _ * -  353 

Banks - 354 

Government  and  people’s  banks -  354 

Foreign  banks - 356 

Savings  banks _  357 

Banks  in  British  Malaya _  357 

Practices  in  handling  bills  of  exchange _  358 

Financing  of  exports _  358 

Exchange  quotations _  359 

Financing  of  imports _  359 

Commissions  on  bills _  361 

Protested  items _ _ _  362 

Shipping  documents _  362 

Sale  of  goods  by  banks  and  reshipments _  362 

Collection  and  interest  charges _  362 

Commercial  organizations -  363 

Monetary  exchange _  364 

Insurance _  364 

Fire  insurance _  364 

Marine  insurance _  365 

Forwarding  companies _  365 

Brokers  and  brokerages _  366 

Exporters  and  importers _  367 

Exporters  in  Netherlands  East  Indies _  367 

Importers  in  Netherlands  East  Indies _  368 

The  Chinese  as  merchants _  369 

Competitors  of  the  Chinese _ 1 _  370 

Chinese  business  morality _  370 

The  Chinese  as  speculators _  371 

The  Chinese  as  local  credit  risks _  372 

Transaction  of  American  business  through  Chinese  firms _  372 

The  Chinese  in  the  Malay  Peninsula _  373 

Wealthy  Chinese  furnish  market  for  high-priced  commodities-  374 

The  Chinese  merchant _ _  375 

Credit  of  the  Straits  Chinese _  375 

Business  organization  in  British  Malaya _  376 

Assembling  of  produce  in  Singapore  or  Penang  for  export _  379 

Credit -  381 

Advertising _  3g2 

Population  and  earning  capacity _  382 

Distribution  of  Javan  population,  by  races _  382 

Languages  -  383 

Translations  _  384 

Newspapers  and  other  periodicals _  384 

Poster  advertising _  386 

Newspaper  advertising _  386 

Other  advertising  media__ _  387 

Government  monopolies _  389 

Pawnshops  _  389 

Opium  -  390 

Salt  monopoly _  391 

Taxation  _  391 

Special  taxes  on  staple  products _  394 

Export  duties  _  398 


CONTENTS, 


XI 


Business  factors — Continued. 

Taxation — Continued.  Page. 

Extension  and  increase  of  import  and  export  duties -  399 

New  stamp  act -  400 

Income-tax  ordinance  of  Straits  Settlements -  403 

Definition  of  income -  403 

Exemptions  and  deductions -  403 

Amendment  of  1921 -  404 

Export  duties,  Federated  Malay  States -  405 

Import  duties - 406 

Netherlands  East  Indies - -  406 

Straits  Settlements  -  410 

Federated  Malay  States -  411 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.  1.  Government  building  at  Kuala  Lumpur— __ - facing..  i 

2.  Distribution  of  tribal  groups - - -  16 

3.  Palace  of  the  Governor  General  at  Weltevreden - facing—  58 

4.  House  of  Yolksraad  (People’s  Council)  at  Weltevreden— facing—  58 

5.  Mohammedan  temple  at  Kuala  Lumpur - facing—  59 

6.  Sugar  ports  and  location  of  sugar  mills  in  Java - —  72 

7.  Fluctuations  in  price  of  superior  head  sugar  in  Soerabaya  market.  82 

8.  Preparing  ground  for  the  planting  of  sugar  cane - facing—  84 

9.  A  field  of  young  cane - facing—  84 

10.  Typical  coconut  village  in  Celebes - .facing —  S5 

11.  Fluctuations  in  price  of  coconut  oil  in  Soerabaya  market -  88 

12.  Fluctuations  in  price  of  copra  in  Soerabaya  market -  92 

13.  Fluctuations  in  price  of  Robusta  coffee  in  Soerabaya  market _  124 

14.  Tea  pickers,  Buitenzorg,  Java - facing..  132 

15.  A  Menangkabau  Malay  chief’s  house - facing..  133 

16.  Ports  of  export  of  rattans -  181 

17.  Ports  of  export  of  copal  and  damar -  184 

18.  Hydraulic  tin  mining,  Federated  Malay  States _ facing _  194 

19.  Kali  Mas,  the  lighter  harbor  of  Soerabaya - - facing _  195 

20.  Commercial  divisions  for  the  sale  of  cotton  piece  goods _  227 

21.  Imports  of  unbleached  cotton  goods -  229 

22.  Imports  of  bleached  cotton  goods -  230 

23.  Imports  of  dyed  and  printed  cotton  goods _ 232 

24.  Imports  of  sarongs,  kains,  slendangs,  and  kappellas _ _ _  234 

25.  Type  of  Java  hotel  of  the  first  class _ facing _  252 

26.  A  first-class  hotel  in  Singapore _ facTng _  252 

27.  Railway  station  and  hotel  at  Kuala  Lumpur,  Federated  Malay 

States - . - facing _  253 

28.  Commercial  divisions  for  the  sale  of  automobiles _  262 

29.  Tandjoengpriok  (Batavia)  Harbor _ facing _  312 

30.  Macassar  Harbor,  Celebes _ facing _  313 

31.  Raffles  Square,  the  retail  center  of  Singapore _ facing..  378 

32.  Peddler  of  general  merchandise,  Java _ facing _  379 

Map  of  all  Netherlands  East  Indies,  in  colors _ following 411 

Map  of  Java  and  Madoera,  in  colors _ _ _ following 411 


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LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Department  of  Commerce, 

Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 

W ashington ,  November  29, 1922. 

Sir  :  Submitted  herewith  is  a  commercial  handbook  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  and  British  Malaya,  by  John  A.  Fowler,  a  trade 
commissioner  of  this  bureau.  The  information  presented  was  gath¬ 
ered  by  Mr.  Fowler  during  a  residence  of  about  three  years  in  these 
countries.  The  book  contains  a  full  discussion  of  the  export  prod¬ 
ucts  and  import  commodities  of  a  territory  with  which  the  United 
States  has  a  direct  trade  averaging  more  than  $300,000,000  annually. 

Respectfully, 


Julius  Klein,  Director  of  Bureau. 


To  Hon.  Herbert  Hoover, 

Secretary  of  C ommerce. 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


Postage. — The  postage  rate  for  letters  from  the  United  States  to  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  is  5  cents  for  the  first  ounce  or  fraction  of  an  ounce  and 
3  cents  for  each  additional  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  The  rate  from  the 
Netherlands  Indies  to  the  United  States  is  20  Dutch  cents  for  the  first  20 
grams  (8  U.  S.  cents  for  0.7  ounce)  and  10  Dutch  cents  for  each  additional 
20  grams.  There  is  parcel-post  service  from  the  United  States  to  all  the  prin¬ 
cipal  islands ;  rate,  12  cents  per  pound ;  limit  of  weight,  11  pounds. 

The  first-class  postage  rate  from  the  United  States  to  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  the  Federated  and  Non-Federated  Malay  States  is  5  cents  for  the  first 
ounce  and  3  cents  for  each  additional  ounce.  The  rate  to  the  United  States 
is  10  Straits  cents  (5.68  U.  S.  cents)  for  the  first  ounce  and  6  Straits  cents 
(3.4  U.  S.  cents)  for  each  additional  ounce.  Parcel-post  service  from  the 
United  States  is  at  the  rate  of  12  cents  per  pound ;  limit  of  weight,  11  pounds. 

Weights  and  measures. — The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  ha:; 
been  officially  adopted  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  but  its  use  is  not 
obligatory.  A  common  unit  of  weight  is  the  picul,  equal  to  136  avoirdupois 
pounds,  which  is  divided  into  100  catties.  Land  is  measured  by  the  bouw, 
equal  to  1.754  acres. 

English  weights  and  measures  are  used  in  British  Malaya.  Local  customary 
units  of  weight  are  the  tahil,  equal  to  14  ounces ;  the  catty,  equal  to  14  pounds ; 
and  the  picul,  equal  to  133^  pounds. 

Geographic  names. — For  geographic  names  the  spelling  as  given  in  the  School 
Atlas  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by  W.  van  Gelder,  former  inspector  of 
native  education,  has  been  generally  followed. 


XIV 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


INTRODUCTION. 

NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

POSITION  AND  AREA. 

The  Netherlands  East  Indian  possessions  consist  of  a  group  of 
islands  with  a  total  area  of  approximately  770,000  square  miles  which 
lie  between  southeastern  Asia  and  Australia.  They  extend  some 
3,100  miles  from  west  to  east  between  95°  and  141°  east  longitude 
and  1,250  miles  from  north  to  south  between  6°  north  and  11°  south 
of  the  Equator.  The  map  of  this  colony  superimposed  on  one  of  the 
United  States  shows  the  northern  point  of  Sumatra  on  the  California- 
Oregon  line  at  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  at 
the  extreme  western  tip  of  New  Guinea,  with  the  whole  of  that  vast 
island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  southernmost  part  of  the 
islands  at  the  southern  point  of  Texas. 

The  largest  of  these  island  territories  are  the  Dutch  part  of  the 
island  of  Borneo,  with  an  area  of  213,000  square  miles;  Sumatra  and 
adjacent  islands,  with  162,000  square  miles;  Dutch  New  Guinea,  with 
153,000  square  miles;  Celebes  and  adjacent  islands,  with  72,000  square 
miles;  and  Java  and  Madoera,  with  51,000  square  miles.  The  re¬ 
mainder  is  made  up  of  the  so-called  Smaller  Soenda  Islands  lying 
to  the  east  of  el ava,  the  Moluccas,  and  innumerable  smaller  islands. 

These  islands  are  usually  grouped  as  follows :  The  Larger  Soenda 
Islands,  including  Sumatra  (with  the  adjacent  islands),  Java  (with 
Madoera),  Borneo,  and  Celebes  (with  the  adjacent  islands);  the 
Smaller  Soenda  Islands,  including  Bali,  Lombok,  Soembawa,  So- 
emba,  Flores,  and  Timor  (with  the  adjacent  islands) ;  the  Moluccas, 
and  New  Guinea. 

They  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  the  South 
China  Sea,  the  Sulu  Sea,  the  Celebes  Sea,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  British  New  Guinea;  on  the 
south  by  the  Arafoera  Sea,  the  Timor  Sea,  and  the  Indian  Ocean; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  principal  interisland 
waters  are  the  Straits  of  Karimata,  between  the  islands  of  Sumatra 
and  Borneo ;  the  Straits  of  Soenda,  between  Sumatra  and  J ava ;  the 
Java  Sea,  between  Java  and  Borneo;  the  Straits  of  Macassar,  between 
Borneo  and  Celebes;  the  Straits  of  Molucca,  between  Celebes  and 
Halmahera;  and  to  the  south  of  these  latter  straits  are  the  Boeroe, 
Ceram,  Banda,  and  Flores  Seas. 


1 


2 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND. 

During  the  sixteenth  century  Portugal  and  Spain  dominated  the 
trade  of  the  Far  East,  and  through  confidence  in  their  monopoly  they 
left  the  distribution  of  their  imports  throughout  Europe  to  the 
Dutch,  who  were  the  great  retailers  of  that  time.  Philip’s  war  with 
the  lowlands  and  the  trading  ability  of  the  Dutch  led  the  latter  to 
retaliate  by  sending  their  own  fleets  to  the  Orient.  The  peak  of  the 
Dutch  struggle  against  these  arrogant  enemies  was  reached  in  1609 
and  left  the  Dutch  in  possession  of  the  right  to  trade  in  the  Far  East 
and  to  hold  the  many  advantages  their  merchants  had  gained  in 
that  trade  during  the  contention.  The  Dutch  East  Indian  Co.  had 
been  formed  in  1602  and  the  monopoly  of  the  far  eastern  trade  was 
delegated  to  it.  The  operations  of  this  company,  which  continued 
until  1791,  were  firmly  based  on  the  monopolistic  theory,  and  so  great 
was  the  faith  of  the  Dutch  people  in  the  efficacy  of  this  system  that 
the  ignominious  failure  of  that  company  and  the  revelations  succeed¬ 
ing  it  only  temporarily  turned  them  aside  from  the  policy  of  ex¬ 
ploitation  of  the  producing  country  and  the  consuming  markets. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  British  had  in¬ 
truded  in  the  trade  and  in  October,  1811,  took  possession  of  Java 
under  an  agreement  with  William  V  of  the  Netherlands,  made  some 
16  years  earlier.  The  colony  was  ruled  as  a  part  of  British  India 
until  August,  1816,  when  it  was  returned  to  the  Dutch.  During 
most  of  this  time  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Baffles,  who  later  founded 
Singapore,  was  governor,  and  he  instituted  many  reforms  that  could 
not  be  carried  out  during  the  short  period  of  British  occupation. 

These  reforms  greatly  embarrassed  the  later  Dutch  administra¬ 
tion,  and  after  some  effort  to  harmonize  them  with  the  Dutch  policies 
there  ensued  a  period  of  reaction,  during  which  the  “  cultuur  system  ” 
developed.  Monopoly  was  the  keynote  of  the  colonial  policy  until 
the  beginning  of  the  third  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  1824  the  Netherlands  Trading  Society  was  organized  and  given 
a  monopoly  of  the  sale  of  the  products  of  the  Government’s  agricul¬ 
tural  enterprises.  This  company  aided  the  Government  in  continu¬ 
ing  the  policy  of  monopoly  which  has  bound  the  Dutch  commercial 
effort  within  narrow  lines  and  left  a  large  field  of  commercial  effort 
open  to  the  British  merchants  of  Singapore. 

Between  1860  and  1865  the  less  important  Government  cultures 
(tea,  tobacco,  indigo,  pepper,  and  cinnamon)  were  given  up,  the 
natives  were  freed  from  the  passport  system,  which  impeded  easy 
movement  of  laborers,  and  were  protected  against  heavy  demands  for 
their  services,  and  many  other  reforms  were  instituted. 

In  the  year  1856,  out  of  20,000  Dutch  people  resident  in  the  colony 
only  608  supported  themselves  independently  of  the  Government, 
but  shortly  afterwards  Dutch  merchants  were  encouraged  to  enter 
trade,  and  there  has  since  developed  the  Dutch  business  organization 
that  is  described  in  succeeding  pages. 

In  the  late  seventies  the  Government  finally  abandoned  the  cul¬ 
tivation  of  sugar,  and  the  industry  under  private  ownership  has 
developed  initiative,  both  in  agricultural  development  and  scientific 
research,  that  was  impossible  under  the  monopolistic  system.  The 
first  petroleum  concession  was  granted  in  1883,  and  through  pri¬ 
vate  enterprise  the  mineral-oil  industry  has  taken  a  prominent  place 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


in  the  world’s  economy.  In  1873  the  first  railway  was  completed 
in  central  Java  by  a  private  company  and  the  first  section  of  Gov¬ 
ernment  railways  was  completed  in  1878.  At  the  end  of  1918  there 
were  3,612  kilometers  of  Government  railroads  and  4,537  kilometers 
of  privately  owned  road. 

Until  1914  the  colony  was  little  known  to  the  countries  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  and  the  major  part  of  the  business  went 
through  Dutch  ports  and  through  London,  but  the  conditions 
brought  about  by  the  war  diverted  shipments  from  European  ports 
and  for  a  period  they  reached  the  American  consumer  by  the 
shortest  route.  The  disorganization  of  the  old  trade  routes  and  the 
temporary  inability  of  central  Europe  to  buy  on  anything  like  the 
pre-war  scale  has  reacted  in  favor  of  American  trade,  and  a  start 
has  been  made  toward  a  better  acquaintance  between  the  Dutch  con¬ 
sumers  and  producers  and  American  manufacturers. 

POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

The  seat  of  the  Central  Government  is  at  Buitenzorg  and  Batavia, 
in  the  Residency  of  Batavia,  and  some  Government  departments  are 
located  at  Bandoeng,  in  the  Preanger  Regencies. 

Politically  the  colony  is  divided  into  two  main  parts,  Java  and 
Madoera,  and  the  Outer  Possessions  (Buitenbezittingen) ,  and  these 
main  divisions  are  again  divided  into  37  residencies  or  governments. 

Java,  although  the  smallest  of  the  Greater  Soenda  Islands,  con¬ 
tains  68  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  47,000,000  (estimate  of 
1917),  and  its  agriculture  has  reached  a  high  state  of  development. 
Together  with  Madoera,  its  17  divisions  are  as  follows : 

Bantam,  on  the  extreme  west,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Serang. 

Batavia,  east  of  Bantam  and  north  of  the  Preanger  Regencies,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Batavia. 

Preanger  Regencies,  east  of  Bantam  and  south  of  Batavia,  with  the  seat  of 
government  at  Bandoeng. 

Cheribon,  east  of  Batavia  and  Preanger  Regencies  and  north  of  the  latter, 
'  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Cheribon. 

Pekalongan,  east  of  Cheribon  and  north  of  Banjoemas,  with  the  seat  of  govern¬ 
ment  at  Pekalongan. 

Banjoemas,  east  of  the  Preanger  Regencies  and  south  of  Pekalongan,  with  the 
seat  of  government  at  Banjoemas. 

Semarang,  east  of  Pekalongan  and  north  of  Kedoe  and  Soerakarta,  with  the 
seat  of  government  at  Semarang. 

Kedoe,  east  of  Banjoemas  and  south  of  Semarang,  with  the  seat  of  government 
at  Magelang. 

The  Vorstenlanden  (Princes’  Lands)  : 

Djokjakarta,  east  and  south  of  Kedoe  and  south  of  Soerakarta,  with  the 
seat  of  government  at  Djokjakarta. 

Soerakarta,  east  of  Djokjakarta  and  Kedoe  and  south  of  Semarang,  with 
the  seat  of  government  at  Soerakarta. 

Rembang,  east  of  Semarang  and  north  of  Madioen  and  Kediri,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Rembang. 

Madioen,  east  of  Soerakarta  and  south  of  Rembang,  with  the  seat  of  govern¬ 
ment  at  Madioen. 

Kediri,  east  of  Madioen  and  south  of  Rembang  and  Soerabaya,  with  the  seat 
*  of  government  at  Kediri. 

Soerabaya,  east  of  Rembang  and  Kediri  and  north  of  Pasoeroean,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Soerabaya. 

Pasoeroean,  east  of  Kediri  and  south  of  Soerabaya,  with  the  seat  of  govern¬ 
ment  at  Pasoeroean. 

Besoeki,  east  of  Pasoeroean,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Bondowoso. 


19878°— 23 - 2 


4 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  island  and  Residency  of  Madoera  lies  to  the  east-  of  Soerabaya,  and  is 
separated  from  that  residency  by  a  narrow  strait.  Its  seat  of  government  is 
at  Pamekasan. 

The  Outer  Possessions  are  divided  into  19  residencies  and  govern¬ 
ments.  F rom  north  and  west  to  east  they  are  as  follows : 

Sumatra : 

Atjeh  and  its  dependencies  are  located  at  the  extreme  north  of  the  island 
of  Sumatra,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Koeta  Radja.  The  large 
island  of  Simeuloe  is  included  in  this  division. 

The  Government  of  Sumatra  East  Coast,  south  and  east  of  Atjeh  and 
east  of  Tapanoeli  and  Sumatra  West  Coast,  with  the  seat  of  government 
at  Medan. 

Tapanoeli,  south  and  west  of  Sumatra  East  Coast  and  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Atjeh  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  with  the  seat  of  government  at 
Sibolga.  The  large  island  of  Nias  is  included  in  this  division. 

Sumatra  West  Coast,  south  of  Tapanoeli  and  Sumatra  East  Coast,  west 
of  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Riouw  and  Djambi,  with  the  seat  of  government 
at  Padang.  The  Mentawei  Islands  are  included  in  this  division. 

Riouw  and  dependencies,  south  of  Sumatra  East  Coast  and  east  of  Sumatra 
West  Coast,  also  the  Riouw  Lingga  Archipelago  to  the  south  of  Singapore 
between  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  Sumatra,  and  the  China  Sea,  with  the 
seat  of  government  at  Tandjoengpinang  on  the  island  of  Bintan  (Riouw). 

Djambi,  south  of  Riouw  and  Sumatra  West  Coast,  east  of  Sumatra  West 
Coast  and  Benkoelen,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Djambi. 

Benkoelen,  south  of  Sumatra  West  Coast  and  south  and  west  of  Djambi, 
Palembang,  and  Lampong  districts,  with  the  seat  of  government  at 
Benkoelen. 

Palembang,  south  of  Djambi  and  east  of  Benkoelen,  with  the  seat  of  gov¬ 
ernment  at  Palembang. 

Lampong  districts,  south  and  east  of  Palembang  and  east  of  Benkoelen, 
at  the  extreme  south  of  Sumatra,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Telok- 
betong. 

Banka  and  dependencies,  the  island  of  Banka  and  adjacent  islands  off  the  east 
coast  of  Palembang  (Sumatra)  and  south  of  the  China  Sea,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  I'angkalpinang. 

Billiton,  the  island  of  Billiton  and  adjacent  islands  lying  to  the  east  of  Banka, 
in  the  Straits  of  Karimata,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Tandjoengpandan. 

Borneo : 

Western  division  of  Borneo,  south  of  Sarawak  (British)  and  north  and 
west  of  the  southern  and  eastern  divisions  of  Borneo,  with  the  seat  of 
government  at  Pontianak. 

Southern  and  eastern  division  of  Borneo,  south  and  east  of  the  British 
possessions  in  Borneo  and  east  of  the  western  division  of  Borneo,  with 
the  seat  of  government  at  Bandjermasin. 

Celebes :  * 

Celebes  and  dependencies,  the  southern  part  of  the  island  of  Celebes  and 
adjacent  islands,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Macassar. 

Menado,  the  northern  part  of  the  island  of  Celebes,  including  the  Sangi 
and  Talaud  Islands  in  the  Celebes  Sea  and  minor  islands,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Menado. 

Ternate  and  dependencies,  the  northern  Molucca  Islands  and  adjacent  groups, 
with  the  seat  of  government  at  Ternate. 

Amboina,  the  southern  Molucca  Islands  and  adjacent  groups,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Ambon. 

Bali  and  Lombok,  the  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok  and  adjacent  islands  lying 
due  east  of  the  Residency  of  Besoeki,  in  eastern  Java,  with  the  seat  of  gov¬ 
ernment  at  Singaradja. 

Timor  and  dependencies,  the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island  of  Timor  and  the 
islands  of  Flores,  Soemba,  Soembawa.  and  adjacent  islands,  all  lying  east  .of 
Bali  and  Lombok,  with  the  seat  of  government  at  Ivoepang. 

New  Guinea,  the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea,  with  the  seat 
of  government  at  Manokwari. 

The  principal  market  cities  are  Batavia,  Soerabaya,  and  Semarang 
in  Java,  Medan  and  Padang  in  Sumatra,  and  Macassar  in  Celebes. 


INTRODUCTION'. 


5 


TRADE  ROUTES  AND  DISTANCES. 

The  northern  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra  lies  on  the  Strait 
of  Malacca,  through  which  all  vessels  from  the  Far  East  must  pass, 
and  Singapore,  the  port  of  call  for  those  vessels,  is  38  hours’  steam¬ 
ing  from  Batavia  and  79  hours  from  Soerabaya.  The  major  part  of 
the  run  from  Singapore  to  Port  Darwin,  Australia,  is  through  Neth¬ 
erlands  East  Indian  waters.  The  distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies  major  ports  to  the  market  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  to  London  are  shown  on  page  55. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Sumatra,  Java,  the  Smaller  Soenda  Islands,  and  New  Guinea  form 
the  arc  of  a  gigantic  circle — a  rampart  of  volcanoes  outlining  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  archipelago.  Borneo  and  Celebes  are 
separated  from  the  islands  directly  to  the  south  by  shallow  seas,  but 
between  them  and  the  Philippine  Islands  and  the  Moluccas  and 
joining  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  south  of  Timor  are  vast  ocean  depths 
that,  it  is  claimed,  once  formed  narrow  seas  between  a  far  different 
Asia  and  an  Australian  continent  that  included  New  Guinea.  All 
these  islands  have  a  more  or  less  extensive  mountain  region,  a  coastal 
plain,  and  between  these  a  hill  land,  generally  not  very  wide. 

On  the  west  Sumatra’s  mountain  range  drops  abruptly  to  the 
Indian  Ocean,  while  to  the  east  it  slopes  more  gradually  to  a  broad 
alluvial  plain  stretching  toward  the  Strait  of  Malacca  and  the 
China  Sea.  Its  rivers  of  consequence,  some  of  which  are  navigable 
for  coastwise  steamers  for  some  distance,  are  all  on  the  eastern  slope. 

The  western  third  of  the  island  of  J ava  is  a  mountainous  country, 
with  many  active  volcanoes,  except  for  a  strip  of  coast  line  on  the 
north,  approximately  50  miles  in  width.  In  central  and  east  Java 
many  volcanoes  rise  singly  or  in  groups  from  the  alluvial  plains  that 
have  been  enriched  by  recurrent  eruptions  through  the  past  ages, 
and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  island  low  hills 
are  characteristic  of  the  coastal  area.  The  principal  rivers,  which 
are  not  navigable  for  craft  of  any  considerable  draft,  all  flow  north¬ 
ward  toward  the  Java  Sea. 

Northern  Borneo  is  crossed  by  a  mountain  range  from  the  north¬ 
east  to  the  southwest  which  spreads  southward  in  several  distinct 
systems.  The  highest  peak  is  in  the  north,  approximately  13,000 
feet,  and  there  are  other  important  peaks  ranging  from  4,000  to 
10,000  feet.  Extensive  river  systems  rise  in  these  mountains  and  flow 
through  alluvial  valleys  and  plains  which  widen  out  into  vast  swamp 
lands  in  the  lower  reaches.  While  there  are  many  rivers  tapping 
considerable  areas,  there  are  four  principal  systems,  one  flowing 
westward  into  the  South  China  Sea  at  Pontianak,  one  southward 
into  the  Java  Sea  at  Bandjermasin,  and  two  eastward  into  the  Strait 
of  Macassar  at  Tandjoengseilor  and  at  Samarinda,  all  navigable  for 
considerable  distances  from  their  outlets.  Wide  swamp  lands  char¬ 
acterize  the  coast  line. 

Celebes  is  traversed  from  south  to  north  by  ranges  of  volcanic 
mountains,  some  of  the  peaks  of  which  reach  an  altitude  of  10,000 
feet.  There  are  innumerable  rivers,  some  of  which  drain  large  areas, 
but  they  are  navigable  for  small  craft  only  and  for  short  distances. 


6 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Mountains,  low  hills,  or  narrow  alluvial  plains,  especially  near  the 
rivers,  characterize  a  large  part  of  the  coast  line,  and  in  the  western 
part  bordering  the  Strait'  of  Macassar  and  on  the  Gulf  of  Bone 
are  large  coastal  swamp  areas.  In  the  Minahasa  district,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  island,  are  fertile  table-lands,  and  in  the  south, 
in  the  Macassar,  Bantaeng,  Bone,  and  Pare  Pare  districts,  are  fine 
agricultural  lands. 

Halmahera,  the  principal  island  of  the  northern  Moluccas,  is  very 
mountainous,  with  narrow  alluvial  plains  along  the  coasts  or  where 
the  rivers  flow  into  the  sea.  Much  of  the  interior  is  unexplored. 
Ceram,  the  largest  of  the  southern  group,  is  also  mountainous,  with 
a  more  clearly  defined  coastal  plain.  Both  of  these  islands  are  essen¬ 
tially  volcanic  in  character. 

Dutch  New  Guinea  is  mountainous  in  the  interior,  with  a  large 
part  of  its  coast  line  low  and  swampy,  especially  in  the  west  and 
south. 

CLIMATE. 

The  difference  between  the  longest  and  shortest  day  is  about  48 
minutes;  therefore  the  duration  of  the  sun’s  radiation  is  very  uni¬ 
form  and  the  difference  in  temperature  is  not  great.  The  daily 
variations  in  temperature  are  less  than  in  the  tropical  continents, 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  sea,  which  tempers  the  heat  by  day.  On 
the  coast  the  average  temperature  is  from  about  79°  to  80J°,  the 
absolute  maximum  temperature  from  about  98°  to  95^°,  and  the 
average  maximum  temperature  from  about  86°  to  89 1°  F.  The  abso¬ 
lute  and  average  temperature  minima  on  the  coast  are  from  about 
61°  to  7l-J°  and  from  70°  to  75°.  With  an  increase  in  altitude  the 
temperature  increases  approximately  1°  to  400  feet.  The  atmos¬ 
pheric  pressure  is  also  very  even.  Slight  fluctuations  are  observed 
daily,  but  depressions  such  as  are  found  in  the  Temperate  Zone  are 
unknown.  The  winds  are  the  regular  alternating  monsoon  and 
trade  winds,  the  period  of  change  being  marked  by  the  inconsistency 
of  the  winds  and  by  thunderstorms.  South  of  the  Equator  it  is  the 
west  monsoon  which  brings  the  rain,  while  the  east  monsoon  brings 
the  dry  season.  The  period  of  least  rainfall  is  from  Mav  to  August 
and  that  of  the  greatest  from  November  to  January.  Only  on  the 
islands  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  archipelago  is  there  a  dis¬ 
tinctly  dry  season,  with  the  accompanying  withering  of  vegetation. 
The  difference  between  the  monsoons  varies  greatly,  so  that  in  Java 
in  some  years  there  is  no  real  dry  season,  while  in  other  years  the 
dry  season  lasts  for  months  at  a  time. 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


Rainfall  and  air  temperature  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in  1917. 


Month. 

Batavia. 

Buiten- 

zorg. 

Pasoero- 

ean. 

Tosari. 

Medan, 

Sumatra. 

Pon- 

tianak, 

Borneo. 

Ambon, 
Moluccas . 

Koepang, 

Timor. 

Altitude, 
8  meters. 

Altitude, 
240  me¬ 
ters. 

Altitude, 
5  meters. 

Altitude, 
1, 735  me¬ 
ters. 

Altitude, 
25  me¬ 
ters. 

Altitude, 
3  meters. 

Altitude, 
4  meters. 

Altitude, 
44  me¬ 
ters. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

May . 

2. 18 

15.16 

1.38 

2. 26 

3.31 

12.22 

26. 19 

0. 71 

June . 

1.92 

9. 26 

.75 

5.85 

4. 27 

5. 60 

29.36 

2. 17 

July  .  .  . . 

4.43 

15.09 

2. 01 

6.77 

4.86 

44. 37 

.03 

November . 

2.99 

7.55 

4.73 

11.95 

9.55 

11.96 

8.36 

3. 17 

December . 

8.26 

12. 49 

10.58 

23.13 

7.58 

7.90 

4.22 

6) 

January . 

17.28 

12.60 

16. 11 

17.30 

10. 32 

11.00 

5.35 

22.65 

Total  for  year . . 

83.86 

241.05 

71.71 

122. 32 

82.69 

134.09 

186. 49 

55.50 

°F. 

°  F. 

°F. 

0  F. 

°F. 

O  J? 

°F. 

°F. 

Mean  air  tempera- 

ture  for  year . 

79.00 

76.50 

79.00 

61.00 

77.00 

78.50 

79.00 

79.00 

Maximum  varia- 

tion . 

2.61 

1.69 

1.59 

.93 

2.79 

1.56 

1. 51 

1.31 

1  No  record. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES. 

The  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  very  rich  in  natural  resources — 
agricultural,  forestal,  and  mineral — and  their  waters  abound  in  fish 
of  infinite  variety. 

JAVA. 

The  rich  volcanic  soil  of  J ava,  an  almost  entirely  agricultural  pop¬ 
ulation  averaging  671  to  the  square  mile,  and  Dutch  energy  and  thor¬ 
oughness  have  all  contributed  to  bring  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  to 
a  very  high  state  of  development,  until  Java  has  become  one  of  the 
world’s  greatest  producing  areas.  The  agricultural  products  are 
rice,  maize,  legumes,  and  other  native  food  products,  pinang  nuts, 
sugar,  coconuts,  oil-containing  seeds  and  plants,  coffee,  rubber,  to¬ 
bacco,  tea,  cinchona  bark,  cassava,  fibers,  cacao,  indigo,  coco  leaves, 
vanilla  beans,  cinnamon,  cassia  vera,  cloves,  plantation  gutta-percha, 
hardwoods,  hides,  horns,  and  skins. 

Petroleum  is  produced  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  island,  building  stone  of  a  good  quality  is  quarried,  and  pottery 
clays,  limestone,  cement  materials,  and  sulphur  are  found.  It  is  re¬ 
ported  that  very  valuable  manganese  deposits  have  been  discovered  in 
central  Java. 

The  fishing  fleets  supply  nearly  all  the  requirements  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  for  fish,  of  which  a  large  quantity  is  used  by  the  natives,  and 
sufficient  sea  salt  is  produced  by  or  under  the  supervision  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  on  the  island  of  Madoera  for  the  requirements  of  the  colony. 

Water  power  is  being  developed  in  the  Preanger  Regencies,  and 
many  other  projects  are  receiving  consideration.  Some  minor  proj¬ 
ects  have  already  been  brought  into  production.  According  to  a 
rough  official  estimate,  500,000  horsepower  can  be  developed  on  the 
island. 


8 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


OUTER  POSSESSIONS. 

But  little  effort  on  the  part  of  Europeans  has  been  made  to  develop 
the  agricultural  resources  of  the  areas  outside  of  Java  and  Madoera 
except  in  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Residency,  where  there  are  ex¬ 
tensive  tobacco,  rubber,  tea,  and  African  oil-palm  plantations,  and  in 
the  “  Spice  Islands,”  where  the  finest  qualities  of  sutmegs  and  mace 
are  grown.  The  native  agricultural  products,  besides  rice,  maize, 
legumes,  and  other  food  products  for  their  own  use,  are  coconuts  and 
oil-containing  seeds  and  plants,  rubber,  coffee,  tobacco,  spices,  pinang 
nuts,  gambier,  sago,  fibers,  hides,  skins,  horns  and  hoofs,  horses,  cat¬ 
tle,  hogs,  poultry,  and  feathers. 

The  vast  forests  produce  rattan,  resins,  guttas  and  wild  rubbers, 
cutch  and  mangrove  bark,  hardwoods,  bird  skins  and  nests,  oil-con¬ 
taining  nuts,  dragons’  blood,  deer  skins  and  horns,  and  beeswax. 

Extensive  fisheries  off  the  coast  of  Sumatra  provide  sea  food  for 
the  native-population  of  the  colony  and  near-by  countries ;  agar  agar 
is  used  locally  and  exported,  and  tortise  and  sea  shells  are  obtained 
in  important  quantities. 

The  mineral  resources  are  petroleum,  tin,  coal,  iron,  gold,  and  sil¬ 
ver,  and  recent  discoveries  promise  nickel  and  copper.  Petroleum 
production  is  well  developed  and  coal  mining  is  carried  on  by  the  ' 
Government  at  three  widely  separated  points.  Gold  and  silver 
mining  have  given  satisfactory  returns  in  southern  and  western 
Sumatra.  Iron  mining  has  not  been  undertaken  on  any  important 
scale,  but  the  development  of  the  Celebes  deposits  is  said  to  be  under 
serious  consideration  by  the  Government.  Tin  is  produced  in  im¬ 
portant  quantities  under  Government  and  private  exploitation,  and 
recent  reports  indicate  that  new  fields  may  be  opened  in  Timor. 

Surveys  have  been  made  of  many  locations  where  hydroelectric 
power  may  be  developed,  and  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Celebes  are  said 
to  be  very  rich  in  possibilities  for  the  development  of  water  power. 
According  to  a  rough  official  estimate,  5,000,000  horsepower  may  be 
developed  in  the  three  islands  just  mentioned. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Netherlands  East  Indies  form,  politically,  a  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  and  all  its  affairs  are  theoretically  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  regulatory  powers  held  by  the  Dutch  Legislature,  but 
regulations  of  a  legislative  nature  may  be  made  by  the  Crown 
through  royal  decrees  and  by  the  Governor  General  through  or¬ 
dinances.  The  supreme  control  over  the  colony  is  vested  in  the 
Crown.  The  Governor  General  rules  over  the  colony  in  the  name 
of  the  King  (Queen)  and  on  him  rests  the  entire  responsibility  for 
its  administration.  His  legislative  as  well  as  his  executive  func¬ 
tions  are  performed  with  the  cooperation  of  an  advisory  body,  the 
Raad  van  Indie  (Council  of  Netherlands  India),  and  the  colonial 
constitution  fixes  certain  matters  in  which  he  must  be  in  agreement 
with  this  council  before  he  can  act. 

The  Raad  van  Indie  consists  of  the  Governor  General,  who  is 
ex  officio  president,  a  vice  president,  four  members,  and  a  secretary. 

In  his  executive  functions  the  Governor  General  is  assisted  by 
the  directors  of  nine  departments  of  general  administration,  viz, 


INTRODUCTION 


9 


Departement  van  Justitie  (Department  of  Justice),  Departement van 
Binneulandsch  Bestuur  (Department  of  the  Interior),  Departement 
van  Onderwijs  en  Eeredienst  (Department  of  Education  .and  Re¬ 
ligion),  Departement  van  Landbouw,  Nijverheid  en  Handel  (De¬ 
partment  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce),  Departement 
der  Burgerlijke  Openbare  Werken  (Department  of  Public  Works), 
Departement  van  Gouvernementsbedrijven  (Department  of  Gov¬ 
ernment  Industries),  Departement  van  Financien  (Department  of 
Finance),  Leger  (Department  of  War),  and  Zeemacht  (Department 
of  Marine). 

The  Volksraad  (Peoples’  Council)  was  established  in  1916  by 
royal  decree.  This  is  an  advisory  body  consisting  of  at  least  39 
members,  of  which  the  chairman  is  appointed  by  the  King  (Queen)  ; 
5  natives  and  14  Europeans  and  foreign  orientals  are  appointed 
by  the  Governor  General  in  agreement  with  the  Council  of  the 
Netherlands  Indies,  and  10  natives  and  9  Europeans  and  foreign 
orientals  are  elected  by  the  members  of  the  local  councils.  The 
Governor  General  may  consult  this  body  on  all  subjects,  but  is 
obliged  to  consult  it  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  budget,  colonial 
loans,  military  duties  of  the  inhabitants,  and  other  subjects  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  King  (Queen)  in  a  general  ordinance. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PROVINCIAL  GOVERNMENTS. 

The  following  extracts,  relating  to  the  organization  of  the  pro¬ 
vincial  governments,  the  self-governing  communities,  and  the  ad¬ 
ministration  of  the  law,  are  taken  from  the  Yearbook  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies,  edition  of  1920,  and  are  sufficiently  explanatory  in 
themselves  without  further  comment : 

For  administration  in  a  narrower  sense  the  Dutch  East  Indies  are  divided 
into  37  Provinces  (see  under  “Political  divisions  ”),  viz,  3  governments,  33  resi¬ 
dencies,  and  1  independent  subresidency. 

The  highest  functionary  in  the  Provinces  is  a  head  official,  with  the  title  of 
governor  or  resident,  who  represents  the  Central  Government.  His  task  is  not 
the  same  in  all  Provinces.  The  system  of  administration  in  Java  and  Madoera 
presents,  except  in  the  principalities  (Soerakarta  and  Djokjakarta),  a  different 
aspect  from  those  in  the  Outer  Possessions,  where  besides  the  central  authority 
we  find  also  a  native  ruler. 

In  the  regions  under  direct  control  of  the  Government  the  residents  act  as 
direct  rulers,  but  in  the  self-governing  communities  their  task  is  limited  to 
supervision  and  the  giving  of  advice  and  ass1' stance. 

Where  they  act  as  rulers  in  the  Outer  Possessions  their  independence  as  a 
rule  is  greater  than  in  Java,  because  of  the  more  isolated  location  and  the  more 
primitive  conditions.  Since  1903  the  duties  of  the  residents  in  Java  and 
Madoera  have  been  transferred  partly  to  provincial  and  municipal  councils, 
which  are  established  for  the  advancement  of  local  interests. 

The  Provinces  are  subdivided  into  divisions  (afdeel  ngen),  at  the  head  of 
which  are  assistant  residents,  while  the  divisions  again  are  subdivided  into 
smaller  districts  ( onderafdeelingen ) ,  under  the  administration  of  “  control- 
euren,”  or  district  officers. 

Besides  European  civil  servants  we  find  native  officials  throughout  the  colony. 
Since  the  founding  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  administration  the  principle  has  j 
always  been  to  have  the  people  under  the  rule  of  their  own  chiefs.  The  high¬ 
est  post  which  a  native  can  occupy,  that  of  regent,  is  hereditary,  a  son  or  some 
other  relative  of  the  deceased  or  ex-regent  succeeding,  in  case  he  fulfills  the 
stipulated  requirements  as  to  ability  and  efficiency. 

In  his  domain,  a  regency,  which  generally  corresponds  with  a  division,  the 
regent  is  the  head  of  the  native  population  and  adviser  to  the  European  official 
in  charge  of  the  division.  The  regencies  are  further  subdivided  into  districts, 


10 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


with  minor  native  officials  in  charge  (the  smallest  of  which  is  the  “  desa,”  or 
village,  under  the  administration  of  a  “  widono  ”  or  “  assistant  widono  ” — 
headman). 

In  the  Outer  Possessions  are  found  native  officials  under  a  number  of 
designations  but  who  lack  the  authority  and  the  influence  of  the  regent  in 
Java.  The  direct  relation  of  the  European  official  with  the  population  is,  as  a 
rule,  greater  in  these  places. 

In  the  administrative  system  the  village  communities  occupy  a  special  posi¬ 
tion,  because  in  a  certain  measure  they  enjoy  autonomy,  which  expresses  itself 
in  the  management  of  their  domestic  affairs  and  in  the  election  of  their  village 
headman,  though  under  the  supervision  of  European  authority. 

The  village  headman’s  duties  consist  in  executing  the  regulations  and  orders 
of  the  superior  authority  and  thus  facilitating  intercourse  between  the  European 
administration  and  the  native  population.  The  headmen  receive  no  fixed  salary, 
but  get  a  share  of  the  taxes  collected  by  them  and  the  revenue  of  certain  lands 
owned  by  the  Government.  They  can  also  claim  the  services  of  the  inhabitants 
of  their  village. 

In  the  Provinces  under  direct  rule,  wherever  circumstances  permit,  by  the 
establishment  of  representative  bodies,  opportunity  is  given  the  residents  to 
take  active  part  in  the  governing  of  Provinces,  districts,  and  towns.  The  estab¬ 
lishing  of  these  magistracies  dates  from  1903  and  went  regularly  into  effect. 

All  public  works,  such  as  roads,  with  the  appertaining  works  and  plantings, 
plantations,  gardens,  markets  and  market  buildings,  slaughterhouses,  and 
cemeteries,  as  well  as  irrigation  and  drainage  works,  are  under  the  management 
of  the  local  organizations. 

The  local  councils  are  so  composed  that  they  contain  representatives  from 
all  nationalities  of  which  the  people  in  the  jurisdiction  consist.  In  the  town 
communities,  which  usually  have  an  Indo-European  character,  the  majority  of 
the  seats  are  given  to  the  European  element.  In  the  more  extensive  rural 
districts,  however,  a  majority  in  the  council  is  pledged  to  the  native  population. 

In  the  councils  which  are  established  for  residencies  (provincial  councils) 
and  which  often  include  more  than  one  municipal  or  district  resort,  the  majority 
still  consists  of  civil  servants  and  Europeans. 

The  assignment  of  members  to  these  last-named  (provincial)  councils  con¬ 
sequently  took  place  by  appointment.  Members  of  municipal  and  district 
councils,  however,  are  nearly  always  elected  by  the  citizens  of  the  resort  who 
are  entitled  to  vote,  or  in  accordance  with  existing  popular  custom.  The  right 
of  election  to  these  councils  is  being  gradually  extended  in  a  liberal  sense. 

On  the  basis  indicated  here  councils  are  established  for  all  of  Java  wherein 
the  division  of  the  existing  residencies  is  followed.  Furthermore,  municipal 
councils  are  established  in  19  of  the  larger  towns.  Fifteen  district  councils 
will  follow  in  the  course  of  the  coming  year. 

In  the  Provinces  outside  of  Java,  also,  political  organization  has  been  force¬ 
fully  taken  in  hand  during  the  last  few  years. 

Ten  of  the  larger  towns  in  the  Outer  Possessions  have  municipal  councils; 
various  district  resorts  have  been  formed.  Among  others,  the  so-called  agri¬ 
cultural  district  on  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  was  designated  as  a  separate 
resort. 

Provincial  councils  are  not  yet  established  outside  Java  and  Madoera. 

SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITIES. 

Netherlands  India  is  politically  divided  into  directly  ruled  territory  and 
into  territory  where  the  “  native  princes  and  peoples  ”  enjoy  autonomy. 

In  the  self-governed  territory  the  native  authority  remains  established  under 
Dutch  sovereignty.  The  relationship  between  the  Netherlands  East  Indian 
Government  and  the  self-governing  communities  rests  mainly  on  historical 
foundations  and  is  regulated  by  political  treaties  or  corresponding  declarations. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  it  has  been  the  aim  to  cement  the 
relation  with  most  of  the  self-governing  communities  in  treaties  of  simpler 
form.  The  existing  detailed  agreements  were  sometimes  out  of  place  in  insig¬ 
nificant  Provinces  and  sometimes  proved  an  impediment  to  a  more  vigorous 
interference  by  the  Dutch  Government.  They  were  accordingly  replaced  by  a 
political  contract  called  “  short  declaration,”  in  which  the  self-ruler  promises, 
among  other  things,  to  obey  all  regulations  and  orders  issued  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  with  regard  to  the  community.  A  briefer  account  of  the  mutual  rights, 


INTRODUCTION 


11 


qualifications,  and  obligations  which  are  described  elsewhere  in  the  treaties 
is  set  forth  in  a  legal  regulation,  the  ordinance  concerning  autonomies,  which 
received  its  sanction  in  1914,  but  has  not  yet  come  into  force.  It  is  to  be 
replaced  by  a  new  ordinance,  revised  and  up  to  date. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  LAW. 

The  division  of  the  population  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  into  Europeans, 
natives,  and  foreign  orientals  has  its  influence  on  the  legal  system. 

The  statutes  which  regulate  the  administration  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
demands,  where  Europeans  are  concerned,  that  their  rights  must  be  similar  with 
those  of  Holland,  in  so  far  as  particular  conditions  in  India,  or  the  desirability 
of  enforcing  a  rule  at  the  same  time  for  another  group  of  the  imputation,  do  not 
necessitate  a  variation. 

The  civil,  mercantile,  and  criminal  codes  for  Europeans  are  almost  the  same  as 
those  in  the  Netherlands. 

For  natives  and  foreign  orientals  the  same  criminal  code  is  in  effect  as  for 
Europeans ;  the  civil  code  of  these  two  groups  of  population  is  based  on  the 
principle  that,  as  far  as  their  social  standing  permits,  they  are  subjected  to  the 
same  taws  as  the  Europeans,  while,  moreover,  their  “  adat  ”  (native  law)  is 
respected  as  much  as  possible. 

The  practice  of  this  principle  has  made  the  Chinese  in  the  biggest  part  of 
India  subject  to  a  law  almost  similar  to  that  of  the  Europeans  in  its  regulation 
of  civil  and  mercantile  codes,  which  regulation  will  soon  be  extended  over  all 
India. 

The  other  foreign  orientals  are  subjected  in  most  Provinces  to  the  European 
property  law,  but  their  family  taws  are  still  ruled  by  their  “  adat.”  This  regu¬ 
lation  also  will  soon  be  enforced  throughout  all  India. 

For  the  natives,  as  far  as  the  civil  law  is  concerned,  their  “  adat  ”  is  prac¬ 
tically  unchanged. 

Natives  and  foreign  orientals  also  have  the  opportunity  of  making  themselves 
subject  to  the  civil  and  mercantile  law  for  Europeans. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  legislator  to  do  away  with  the  difference  in  taw  where- 
ever  possible.  In  order  to  obtain  as  much  uniformity  as  possible,  a  general  civil 
code  is  in  preparation,  which,  as  far  as  property  rights  are  concerned,  gives  an 
almost  uniform  regulation,  and  which,  with  regard  to  family  taw  and  relative 
matters,  has  only  such  differences  as  can  not  be  avoided  on  account  of  divers 
creeds  and  social  opinions. 

In  a  similar  spirit  the  commercial  law  will  be  revised.  The  penal  code,  as 
mentioned  above,  is  already  unified. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

With  regard  to  the  administration  of  justice  in  these  colonies,  we  observe 
principally  three  rubrics : 

(a)  Administration  of  justice  for  Europeans  and  those  enjoying  similar 

rights. 

(b)  Government  administration  of  justice  for  natives  and  foreign  orientals 
in  regions  under  direct  rule. 

(c)  Native  administration  of  justice  in  self-governed  districts  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  directly  governed  regions  where  the  people,  either  for  political 
or  for  practical  reasons,  are  left  in  enjoyment  of  their  own  administration  of 
justice. 

Only  the  administration  of  justice  mentioned  under  (a)  and  (6)  is  adminis¬ 
tered  in  the  name  of  the  Queen. 

Europeans  and  those  who  enjoy  the  same  rights  are  usually  tried  before 
European  magistrates  throughout  the  whole  of  Netherlands  India,  except  in 
several  parts,  for  minor  offenses.  The  magistrates  who  try  Europeans  handle 
also  civil  and  commercial  suits  brought  against  natives  and  foreign  orientals, 
in  case  these  suits  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  European  law.  In  the 
directly  governed  regions  Government  administration  of  justice  for  natives  is 
the  rule. 

Government  subjects  come  under  Government  jurisdiction. 

Government  magistrates  hilso  act  in  these  regions  when  offenses  against 
direct  subjects  or  properties  of  the  Government  are  tried,  as  well  as  in  trans¬ 
gressions  with  respect  to  taxes  and  import  and  export  duties. 


12 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


COURTS. 

Europeans  are  brought  to  trial  before  one  of  the  courts  of  justice,  of  which 
there  are  three  in  Java,  two  in  Sumatra,  and  one  in  Celebes.  Higher  appeal 
may  be  made  at  the  High  Court  of  Justice  of  Netherlands  India,  which  is  also 
a  court  of  cassation  and  which  is  located  at  Batavia. 

Minor  civil  cases  are  handled  by  the  residential  court,  which  is  held  by  the 
local  president  of  the  “  Landraad.” 

The  court  for  the  native  population  and  foreign  orientals  is  the  Landraad 
or  a  board  of  equal  rank,  in  Java  and  Madoera  presided  over  by  a  judicial 
official.  In  the  Outer  Possessions  are  still  many  native  courts  under  the 
praesidium  of  civil  officials.  For  some  years  past  it  has  been  decided  that 
native  chiefs  also  may  hold  this  position.  The  members  are  native  chiefs, 
some  of  whom  take  seat  by  virtue  of  their  office  and  some  are  appointed  by 
the  Governor  General. 

To  each  Landraad  is  attached  an  adviser  of  the  same  nationality  or  religion 
as  the  accused,  who  gives  information  regarding  the  “  adat.”  From  the  Land¬ 
raad  higher  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  courts  of  justice. 

Minor  offenses  are  judged  for  all  groups  of  the  population  in  Java  and 
Madoera  by  the  “  Landgerecht.”  The  judge  of  this  court  is  a  lawyer  or  an 
official  especially  appointed.  In  the  Outer  Possessions  the  Magistry  Court 
(Magistraatgerecht)  has  this  authority  over  natives  and  foreign  orientals;  it 
deals  also  with  minor  civil  cases. 

From  the  judgment  of  this  court  no  appeals  can  be  made.  Officials  are 
obliged  to  register  all  penalties  applied,  while  the  High  Court  of  Justice  of 
Netherlands  India  may  look  into  the  registers  at  any  time. 

In  Java  and  Madoera  minor  civil  cases  and  native  legal  offenses  are  admin¬ 
istered  by  the  Regency  or  District  Court,  consisting  of  the  regent  or  the  chief 
of  the  district,  each  for  the  region  under  his  authority.  From  the  decisions 
of  the  District  Court  in  civil  affairs  a  higher  appeal  may  be  made  to  the 
Regency  Court.  From  the  decisions  of  the  Regency  Court  a  higher  appeal  may 
be  made  to  the  Landraad. 

It  is  the  intention  to  unify  the  law  of  proceeding  as  well  as  the  material  law. 
As  far  as  the  Landgerecht  procedure  is  concerned,  this  unification  is  already  at¬ 
tained  ;  all  minor  penal  cases  are  handled  alike  before  this  court.  A  plan  for 
the  unification  of  the  entire  remaining  penal  process  is  ready  but  not  yet 
established.  The  unification  of  the  civil  process  is  still  being  worked  on. 

The  procedure  of  the  law  for  Europeans  is  here  much  the  same  as  in  Holland, 
while  for  the  natives  it  is  simpler  and  less  expensive. 

The  High  Court  of  Netherlands  India  exercises  supervision  over  the  entire 
legal  administration  of  the  colonies. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION. 

According  to  an  official  estimate  of  population  made  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1917,  based  on  the  census  of  1905,  the  total  population  of  the 
colony  was  47,203,639,  divided  as  follows : 


District. 

Euro¬ 

peans. 

Natives. 

Other  ori¬ 
entals. 

Total. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Density. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

111,430 

33, 652,230 

393, 723 

34, 157, 3S3 

50,775 

672.00 

Sumatra  and  Riouw  Lingga . 

15,210 
909 
2,448 
4, 223 
3, 658 
967 

4,993, 865 
120, 274 
1,428,421 
3,061,758 
553, 219 
2,422, 360 

217, 647 
92, 476 
83,634 
28,093 
4, 192 
12,902 

5,226,722 
213, 659 
1,514,503 
3,094,074 
561, 069 
2,436,229 

178,612 
6,309 
213, 646 
71,781 
197, 225 

29.00 

33.00 

7.00 

43.00 

2.84 

Banka  and  Billiton . . . . 

Dutch  Borneo . 

Celebes  and  surrounding  islands . 

Amboina,  Ternate,  and  New  Guinea.. 
Smaller  Soenda  Islands . 

All  others . 

51, 652 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

27, 415 

12, 579, 897 

438,944 

13,046,256 

719, 225 

18.10 

Grand  total . 

138,845 

46, 232, 127 

832, 667 

47, 203, 639 

770,000 

61.30 

Note. — Actual  survey  of  Java  and  Madoera.  Estimate  of  areas  of  other  islands  to  be  considered  broadly 
approximate. 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 


.  ORIENTAL  PEOPLES  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  INDIES. 

[Written  partly  from  data  supplied  by  the  Encyclopedic  Bureau  of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  of  the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.] 

The  origin  of  the  races  inhabiting  the  islands  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  stands  in  doubt.  According  to  some  anthropologists 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Java  were  the  Indonesians,  whose  prob¬ 
able  descendants,  the  Badoei,  in  southern  Bantam,  and  the  Tengerese, 
in  the  Tenger  Mountains  in  east  Java,  still  live  as  separate  tribes, 
although  their  numbers  are  small  and  they  differ  little  from  their 
neighbors.  Others  contend  that  these  two  peoples  are  descendants 
of  subjects  of  the  former  Hindu  Empire  who  fled  before  the  intrud¬ 
ing  Islamites.  The  earliest  known  inhabitants  had  some  culture  and 
a  written  language,  the  basis  of  the  present  Javanese  characters, 
which  was  modified  or  altered  by  the  Hindus  who  invaded  the 
country  about  the  year  600  A.  D.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Hindus  were  expelled  by  the  followers  of  Islam,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  Hinduism 
finally  gave  way  to  Islamism  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  and  European 
civilization  did  not  begin  to  influence  the  life  and  culture  of  the 
people  until  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Hinduism  manifested  itself  in  the  system  of  writing  and  in  the 
literature,  architecture,  and  sculpture  of  the  people  of  Java,  while 
Mohammedanism  (Islamism)  exerted  its  greatest  influence  on  their 
religious  conceptions.  Some  of  the  animists  of  northern  Sumatra, 
northern  Celebes,  and  on  the  eastern  islands  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  but  wherever  Islamism  or  Hinduism  has  become  thor¬ 
oughly  established  the  Christian  religion  has  made  but  small  prog¬ 
ress.  European  influence  in  its  economic  aspects  has,  however,  con¬ 
tributed  much  that  has  benefited  native  life. 

The  population  of  Java  is  dense  and  largely  homogeneous,  but  in 
Sumatra  the  conditions  are  very  different.  The  successive  immigra¬ 
tions  and  the  trade  routes  from  and  to  the  west  followed  the  coast 
of  Sumatra  lying  on  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  and,  while  the  origin  of 
the  numerous  tribes  is  in  doubt,  the  influence  of  the  various  migra¬ 
tions  is  apparent. 

According  to  their  traditions  the  Malays  were  the  earliest  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  island,  and  more  particularly  the  Menangkabau  Malays, 
who  dwell  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  west.  They  claim 
direct  descent  from  Alexander  the  Great,  whose  son,  their  legends 
state,  settled  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Merapi  and  became  the  an¬ 
cestor  of  the  Menangkabau  people.  From  there  they  migrated  to 
other  parts  of  the  island,  to  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  to  the  islands 
to  the  east,  founding  Malacca  and  Singapore  and  spreading  the 
faith  of  Islam  wherever  they  went.  Anthropologists  disagree  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  Malay  race,  some  suggesting  that  it  had  its  birth 
on  the  Asiatic  continent,  while  others  contend  that  it  is  a  develop¬ 
ment  from  the  early  races  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  which  were 
richly  fertilized  by  the  succeeding  invasions  from  Asia  proper,  and 
that  those  peoples  who  did  not  mix  with  the  foreigners  retired  to 
the  interior  and  are  now  found  in  the  Orang  Koeboe  of  Sumatra, 
the  Orang  Sakei  of  the  peninsula,  and  others  of  the  more  primitive 
peoples.  There  are  many  tribal  groupings  in  Sumatra,  most  of 
which  have  been  strongly  influenced  in  customs  and  language  by  the 


14  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Malays,  and  the  Chinese  and  Artibs  are  even  now  working  changes 
in  their  customs  and  culture. 

The  waves  of  immigration  that  affected  the  populations  of 
Sumatra  and  Java  in  ancient  times  seem  to  have  passed  by  Borneo, 
but  the  modern  immigrations  of  Chinese  and  Malays  are  working 
their  way  inland  along  the  river  systems  of  the  west  and  south  and 
on  all  the  coasts  of  the  island.  In  Dutch  Borneo  there  are  two  types 
of  Dyaks,  the  earliest  known  inhabitants,  who  constitute  the  large 
bulk  of  the  population  and  are  roughly  classed  as  river  and  mountain 
people.  They  go  to  the  coast  only  to  trade,  and  they  form  no  part 
of  the  population  of  the  coastal  districts.  In  Sarawak,  British 
Borneo,  there  are  Dyaks  who  dwell  on  the  coast  and  are  called  “  Sea 
Dyaks.” 

The  islands  of  the  Smaller  Soenda  Group,  not  including  Bali  and 
Lombok,  which  are  inhabited  by  people  racially  related  to  those  of 
Java,  are  populated  by  Malayo-Polynesians  of  much  purer  type  than 
the  people  of  the  islands  to  the  west,  and  much  less  affected  by  the 
modern  Chinese  and  Malay  immigrations.  In  Timor  and  the  sur¬ 
rounding  islands  are  local  groups  with  a  strong  admixture  of  Portu¬ 
guese  and  Dutch  blood. 

The  people  of  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas  show  a  considerable  vari¬ 
ation  of  culture,  but  they  are  racially  of  almost  pure  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian  blood,  except  in  the  Southern  Spice  Islands,  where  there  are 
some  inhabitants  of  Portuguese  mixture. 

The  origin  of  the  people  of  New  Guinea  is  unknown.  There  are 
anthropologists  who  contend  that  these  people  are  related  to  the 
Negritos  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  while  others  dispute  this  claim. 

TRIBAL  DIVISIONS  AND  THEIR  ECONOMIC  STATUS. 

JAVA  AND  MADOERA. 

Java  is  the  home  of  the  Javanese  and  Soendanese  peoples,  besides 
the  small  groups  of  Tengerese,  who  are  practically  absorbed  by  the 
Javanese  and  Badoeinese,  who  may  be  grouped,  economically,  with 
the  Soendanese,  while  the  Madoerese,  whose  home  is  on  the  island 
of  Madoera,  have  migrated  in  large  numbers  to  eastern  Java  and 
have  formed  an  integral  part  of  Java’s  population.  The  Malays, 
Chinese,  and  Arabs,  who  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  colony,  will 
be  discussed  in  a  separate  section. 

The  census  of  1905  states  that  84  per  cent  of  the  population  of 
Java  is  agricultural.  This  agricultural  population  is  grouped  as 
follows : 


Groups. 

Men. 

Women. 

Total. 

Owners  of  the  ground . 

3,000,000 

270,000 

1, 200,000 
170,000 

300,000 

15,000 

950,000 

80,000 

3,300,000 

285,000 

2,150,000 

250,000 

Farmers . T . 

Agricultural  laborers: 

Native . 

European . 

4, 640, 000 

1,345,000 

5,985,000 

Javanese. — There  are  approximately  22,000,000  Javanese  on  the 
island  of  Java,  most  of  whom  are  in  the  central  and  eastern  part. 


INTRODUCTION. 


15 


The  Javanese  language  is  used  only  in  middle  and  eastern  Java,  east 
of  the  Preanger  Regencies,  and  the  Residency  of  Cheribon.  In  writ¬ 
ing  and  printing  the  Javanese  characters  are  used,  and  the  Romanized 
characters  are  not  understood.  There  are  two  principal  and  entirely 
different  forms  of  words  and  manners  of  speech  to  be  mastered,  one 
for  the  superior  and  the  other  for  the  inferior,  and  this,  coupled 
with  its  complexity,  makes  it  a  very  difficult  language  to  learn. 

J avanese  industries  are  generally  operated  in  connection  with  agri¬ 
culture — the  preparation  of  oil,  sugar,  tapioca,  copra,  or  tobacco.  It 
is  exceptional  that  native  industry  enters  the  field  of  what  is  called 
“  great  industry,”  which  is  in  the  hands  of  Europeans,  Chinese,  and, 
in  a  small  way,  Japanese,  and  works  largely  for  the  foreign  markets. 

As  a  rule  the  articles  manufactured  in  the  household  industries 
have  a  greater  artistic  than  utilitarian  value. 

On  the  coasts  of  the  Residency  of  Rembang  native  shipbuilding  is 
carried  on. 

Most  of  the  native  trading  is  done  in  the  markets  by  women  as 
both  sellers  and  buyers,  and  the  “  waroeng”  (or  small  native  shop) 
traffic  is  conducted  entirely  by  them.  The  more  important  centers  of 
native  trade  are  in  Kedoe,  Djokjakarta  (Pasir  Gede),  and  Peka- 
longan.  The  shop  trade  (retail  stores)  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese, 
especially  in  the  small  towns. 

The  Javanese  as  factory  or  port  laborers  are  generally  considered 
satisfactory.  They  have  few  wants  and  hard  work  is  not  necessary, 
but  when  at  work  they  perform  their  tasks  well.  In  some  parts  of 
Java  the  natives  are  addicted  to  opium  smoking  and  throughout  the 
island  they  go  to  excess  in  their  festivities,  often  losing  everything 
they  have  in  gambling. 

Islamism  is  the  religion  of  the  Javanese. 

The  Soendanese.  are  approximately  7,000,000  in  number  and  live  in 
western  J ava,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Preanger  Regencies,  and  in  the 
lowlands  to  the  north  and  west.  Their  language,  which  has  its  own 
grammar  and  written  characters,  is  far  poorer  in  Sanskrit  words 
and  terms  than  the  Javanese  and  in  Arab  words  than  the  Malay. 
They  are  taller  and  stronger  than  the  Javanese  and  more  energetic. 
Their  temperament  is  more  lively,  which  is  indicated  in  the  greater 
use  of  bright  colors  in  their  clothing,  but  their  civilization  is  dis¬ 
tinctly  inferior.  •  Otherwise  they  have  the  same  general  charac¬ 
teristics  as  the  Javanese,  and,  like  them,  are  agriculturists.  In 
the  larger  towns  the  Soendanese  are  inclined  to  assimilate  the  ways 
of  the  various  races  resident  there,  but  in  the  mountains  and  rural 
districts,  where  they  live  by  agriculture  and  the  chase,  they  have  a 
reputation  for  being  honest,  loyal,  subject  to  tradition,  and  of  a  re¬ 
ligious  disposition,  although  their  Islamism,  modified  as  it  is  by  relics 
and  ritual  of  bygone  cults,  is  of  a  doubtfully  orthodox  type.  Out¬ 
wardly  they  have  been  influenced  far  less  than  the  Javanese  by  the 
Hindu  and  Arab  civilizations. 

The  Madoerese  number  about  4,000,000,  of  which  2,500,000  live  in 
Java,  in  the  Residencies  of  Pasoeroean  and  Besoeki.  They  have 
also  emigrated  to  the  islands  of  Kangean  and  Bawean,  in  the  Java 
Sea. 

While  there  is  a  tendency  toward  the  Soendanese  becoming 
absorbed  by  the  J  avanese  race,  the  Madoerese,  whose  ancestral  home 


16 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


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INTRODUCTION. 


17 


is  in  the  island  of  Madoera,  are  successfully  retaining  their  rugged 
and  forceful  characteristics.  Some  of  them  are  merchants,  but 
most  are  agriculturists,  and  are  headstrong,  vindictive,  and  ever 
ready  to  draw  the  “  pi  so  blati  ”  (knife)  to  avenge  the  slightest  insult'. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  are  industrious,  frugal,  and  have  more  fore¬ 
sight  than  most  of  the  other  natives  of  the  archipelago.  They  have 
no  equals  in  the  colony  as  breeders  of  cattle.  They  are  successful 
small  traders  and  are  also  fishermen  and  daring  navigators.  In  the 
industries  they  have  not  developed  very  far,  but  are  good  potters, 
basket  makers,  carpenters,  and  smiths  and,  unlike  most  other  natives 
of  the  archipelago,  are  inclined  to  save  their  money.  The  Madoerese 
of  Bawean  carry  on  a  trade  with  the  various  small  ports  of  north 
Java  and  with  Bandjermasin,  in  Borneo. 

Islamism  is  the  religion  of  the  Madoerese. 

SUMATRA. 

The  following  table  gives  the  population,  area,  and  density  of 
population  of  Sumatra,  based  on  the  estimate  of  December,  1917 : 


Residency. 

Euro¬ 

peans. 

Natives. 

/ 

Other 

orientals. 

Total. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Density. 

Sumatra  West  Coast . 

3, 532 

1, 273, 170 
761,  844 
226, 062 

11,922 
2, 671 

1, 288, 624 

15, 558 
16, 231 

82 

Tapanoeli . 

723 

765, 238 
229,  845 

47 

Benkoelen . 

484 

3;  299 

9,437 

24 

Lampongs . 

458 

168'  256 

2;  858 
12, 673 

17i;  572 

11,337 

15 

Palembang . 

1,400 

746, 475 

760, 548 
207, 265 
894, 140 
709,  841 
199, 649 

}  53,714 
35, 478 

D  jambi . 

190 

203, 116 

3;  959 

18 

Sumatra  East  Coast . 

6, 270 

742;  215 
695, 125 

145;  655 
12, 982 

25 

Atjeh  and  dependencies . 

1, 734 

20,  548 

34 

Riouw  and  dependencies . 

419 

177;  602 

21, 628 

16;  377 

12 

15,210 

4, 993, 865 

217,647 

5, 226, 722 

178, 680 

29 

Menangkabau  Malays. — The  home  of  the  Menangkabau  Malays  is 
in  the  highlands  of  the  Sumatra  West  Coast  Residency,  an  area  of  ap¬ 
proximately  8,700  square  miles,  in  which  the  largest  part  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  residency  is  located.  They  claim  to  be,  and  probably 
are,  the  parent  stock  of  the  whole  Malay  race.  Their  culture  is 
highly  developed  and  their  rich  language  has  strongly  influenced  all 
of  the  languages  of  Sumatra  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  They  use 
Arabic  Malay  script  in  writing.  These  virile  people  live  principally 
by  agriculture  and  excel  all  other  natives  in  the  archipelago  in  care¬ 
ful  cultivation.  While  their  herds  are  not  large,  the  stock  is  well 
bred.  The  agricultural  products  are  rice,  pepper,  cacao,  indigo,  nut¬ 
megs  and  mace,  cassia  vera,  tamarinds,  coffee,  teakwood,  tobacco, 
gambier,  coconuts,  pinang  nuts,  kapok  peanuts,  Turkish  wheat,  po¬ 
tatoes,  fruits,  and  green  vegetables.  Property  succession  is  in  the 
female  line. 

The  European  exporters  and  importers  find  the  Menangkabau 
Malays  to  be  sharper  business  men  than  the  Chinese,  who  have  never 
been  able  to  secure  a  foothold  in  the  interior  trade. 

The  industries  carried  on  by  the  men  are  mainly  carpentry  and 
ironwork  for  local  needs,  while  the  women  occupy  their  spare  time 
in  spinning,  weaving,  and  basketwork.  The  Menangkabau  Malay 
weaves  are  very  exceptional  in  texture  and  design,  both  in  cotton  and 


18 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


silk  fabrics.  Their  economic  position  is  much  above  that  of  the  other 
inhabitants  of  Sumatra,  if  not  of  the  whole  colony,  and  their  con¬ 
sumption  of  western  manufactures  is  considerable.  Islamism  is 
their  religion. 

The  Coast  Malays . — This  designation  is  somewhat  a  misnomer,  as 
the  Malays  occupy  not  only  the  coastal  district  but  are  the  principal 
part  of  the  population  of  the  vast  interior  areas  in  Palembang, 
Djambi,  and  Riouw  in  Sumatra,  and  they  are  established  along  the 
river  systems  of  Borneo,  far  in  the  interior.  Malay  settlements  are 
found  along  the  coasts  of  most  of  the  important  islands,  and  espe¬ 
cially  at  trade  centers.  There  is  no  way  of  estimating  the  total 
number,  as  they  are  classed  as  natives  in  the  census.  The  language 
of  the  Coast  Malays  is  based  on  the  Menangkabau  Malay,  but  is  much 
simpler  and  is  supplemented  by  Portuguese,  English,  or  Dutch  words 
in  various  sections  and  in  some  places  by  all.  It  is  divided  practi¬ 
cally  into  two  languages,  High  Malay  and  Low  Malay.  Broadly, 
Malay  is  spoken  in  all  of  central  and  south  Sumatra;  it  is  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  commerce,  and  wherever  the  Dutch  Government  is  esfab- 
lished  it  is  introduced  through  the  schools.  The  native  chiefs  every¬ 
where  speak  this  language,  the  knowledge  of  it  being  a  sign  of  some 
culture.  Low  Malay  is  easy  to  learn,  and  the  knowledge  of  a  few 
hundred  words  will  make  it  possible  to  converse  on  ordinary  topics 
throughout  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  British  Malaya. 

As  noted  in  the  preceding  section,  these  people  are  an  offshoot  of 
the  Menangkabau  Malays  and  were  probably  more  recently  crossed 
with  foreign  racial  elements.  In  Palembang  and  Djambi,  as  well 
as  in  southern  and  eastern  Borneo,  they  give  the  Chinese  merchants 
very  strong  competition  and  form  the  predominant  factor  in  the  trade 
of  the  interior.  They  are  also  agriculturists,  daring  navigators,  and 
manufacturers  of  articles  for  native  use  and  adornment.  They  are 
ardent  Mohammedans,  and  the  spread  of  Islamism  throughout  the 
colony  has,  in  a  large  degree,  been  due  to  their  efforts. 

The  Lampongers  live  in  the  southernmost  part  of  the  island  of 
Sumatra.  In  the  Residency  of  the  Lampongs,  the  home  of  this 
group,  all  of  the  population  of  168,000  are  Lampongers,  wTith  the 
exception  of  a  few  of  the  people  of  the  Bantam  Residency,  who 
have  settled  there  as  laborers  in  their  employ,  and  the  imported 
labor  for  European  estates.  A  considerable  part  of  the  115,000 
people  of  southern  Benkoelen  and  the  154,000  people  of  southern 
Palembang  also  either  belong  to  this  group  or  are  strongly  influ¬ 
enced  byTlieir  culture. 

The  language  of  these  people  has  many  dialects,  differing  widely 
in  sound  and  word  formation,  but  all  have  a  common  grammar  and 
are  closely  related  to  the  Menangkabau  Malay.  The  written  char¬ 
acters  follow  closely  the  Sanskrit  alphabet,  and  when  writing  Malay 
or  Soendoenese,  which  many  of  them  understand,  the  Lampongers 
use  their  own  alphabet. 

The  principal  source  of  livelihood  of  the  Lampongers  is  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  pepper,  from  which  they  have  amassed  considerable  wealth. 
They  do  but  little  of  the  work  of  cultivation  and  harvesting  them¬ 
selves,  but  employ  laborers  from  the  near-by  Residency  of  Bantam, 
in  Java,  whence  large  numbers  emigrate  during  the  pepper  harvest 
season.  While  keen  business  men,  they  are  not  industrious,  and, 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


outside  of  pepper,  coconuts,  and  some  coffee,  the  resources  of  the 
area  are  exploited  by  the  foreign  Asiatic  and  European  population. 
Their  religion  is  Islamism. 

The  Redjangs  live  in  the  highlands  to  the  east  of  the  town  of 
Benkoelen  and  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the  17,000  native 
peoples  in  that  subdistrict.  They  have  their  own  language,  but 
their  system  of  writing  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Lampongers. 
They  differ  little  from  the  Menangkabau  Malays,  and  such  differ¬ 
ences  as  there  are  may  be  said  to  be  the  result  of  J avanese  influence. 
Coffee,  rice,  and  cattle  are  the  principal  products.  Their  Islamism  is 
mixed  with  animism,  and  they  are  said  to  be  much  less  hospitable 
than  their  neighbors. 

The  Lebongs  constitute  approximately  half  of  the  native  popula¬ 
tion  of  93,000  in  the  subdistrict  of  the  same  name  in  the  Residency  of 
Benkoelen,  adjoining  the  home  of  the  Redjangs.  According  to  their 
traditions,  they  are  descendants  of  the  Menangkabau  Malays,  but 
some  authorities  contend  they  are  related  to  the  Orang  Koeboe. 
Their  writing  is  done  on  bamboo  in  the  Lampong  alphabet.  Islam¬ 
ism  is  their  religion. 

The  Korintjis  are  a  mountain  people,  about  57,000  in  number, 
whose  rich  homeland,  adjoining  that  of  the  Lebongs  and  the 
Menangkabau  Malays,  is  surrounded  by  mountains  and  is  so  inac¬ 
cessible  that  their  agricultural  products  can  not  be  taken  out.  They 
are  descendants  of  the  Menangkabau  Malays,  speak  a  dialect  of  their 
language,  and  use  the  same  written  characters.  Intellectually  and 
as  agriculturists  they  are  said  to  be  far  in  advance  of  their  neighbors, 
other  than  the  Menangkabau  Malays,  and  are  keen  money  makers 
and  savers.  The  products  are  rice,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  water  buffaloes, 
all  of  which  are  of  superior  quality  or  breed.  Islamism  is  their 
religion. 

People  of  Palembang ,  Dj combi,  Riottvj,  and  the  southern  part 
of  Sumatra  East  Coast. — These  vast  areas  are  populated  most  largely 
by  an  offshoot  of  the  Menangkabau  Malays,  usually  termed  “  Coast 
Malays,”  the  exception  being  the  Orang  Koeboe,  about  7,000  wild 
dwellers  in  the  jungle,  of  no  economic  importance,  and  the  Lampong¬ 
ers  in  the  south.  The  total  native  population  of  these  three  resi¬ 
dencies,  including  the  Riouw  Archipelago  and  excluding  the 
Lampongers,  already  mentioned,  is  1,075,000.  The  religion  of  the 
Malays  is  Islamism,  while  the  Orang  Koeboe  are  animists. 

Mandailing  and  other  West  Coast  Malays. — To  the  north  of  the 
Menangkabau  Malay  country,  in  the  Residencies  of  Tapanoeli  and 
southern  Atjeh,  are  several  groups  of  Malays  who  take  their  names 
from  the  districts  in  which  they  live.  These  are  the  Mandailings, 
Sibolgas,  etc. — in  fact,  Coast  Malays,  slightly  more  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  parent  race  than  others  under  that  general  heading, 
and  therefore  more  industrious.  Their  country  is  very  fertile,  and 
some  of  the  best  qualities  of  coffee  are  raised  in  this  district.  They 
number  upward  of  800,000.  Islamism  is  their  religion. 

In  the  highlands  in  the  southern  part  of  Tapanoeli  are  two 
primitive  peoples,  the  Orang  Ulu  and.  the  Orang  Lobu,  small  in 
numbers  and  of  little  economic  value.  Their  language  is  Low  Malay 
and  their  religion  Islamism,  with  a  strong  animistic  tendency. 

19878°— 23 - 3 


20 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  Battiks  occupy  the  whole  of  the  highlands  of  northern 
Sumatra,  south  of  Atjeh,  in  the  Tapanoeli  and  Sumatra  East  Coast 
Residencies.  The  Batak  dialects  can  be  grouped  under  two  general 
classifications,  which  are  again  divided  into  five  subdivisions.  The 
population  divided  according  to  these  dialects  is  as  follows : 

Karo  Bataks,  north  of  Lake  Toba,  numbering  about  120,000. 

Pak  Pak  Bataks,  west  of  Lake  Toba,  numbering  about  22,000. 

Toba  Bataks  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Toba,  the  peninsula  of  Samosir, 
the  plateau  of  Toba,  the  highlands  of  Assahan  (Sumatra  East 
Coast  Residency),  Selindoeng,  the  country  between  Baros,  Sibolga, 
and  the  mountains  of  Tapanoeli,  and  Babinsaran,  numbering  about 
400,000. 

The  Angkola  and  Mandailing  Bataks,  in  Angkola  and  Sipirok,  in 
the  Residency  of  Tapanoeli,  numbering  about  160,000. 

The  Timoer  and  Simeloengoen  Bataks,  east  of  Lake  Toba.  The 
written  language  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Asia  and  is  somewhat 
similar  in  the  main  principles  to  the  Javanese  system,  but  much 
simpler.  Besides  the  differences  in  language,  these  tribes  vary  in 
their  customs,  morals,  and  conceptions  of  justice,  but  only  in  details. 

All  of  the  Bataks,  except  those  of  Simeloengoen,  dwell  in  per¬ 
manent  villages,  built  with  some  regularity.  The  homes,  especially 
those  of  the  wealthy  classes,  are  skillfully  constructed  and  decorated 
with  carvings  and  colors. 

The  Bataks  are  an  agricultural  people,  cultivating  rice  and,  where 
water  is  scarce,  the  inland  potato  (gadoen),  which  takes  the  place  of 
rice  as  the  staple  food.  While  the  handicrafts  necessary  for  the  life 
of  the  people  are  carried  on,  it  may  be  said  that  every  artisan  is  also 
an  agriculturist.  Cattle  breeding,  especially  of  the  carabao,  or  water 
buffalo,  is  extensively  carried  on.  The  Batak  carabao  and  horses  are 
favorably  regarded  in  the  lowlands. 

The  many  good  roads  of  the  country  favor  the  inland  trade  which 
is  carried  on  by  these  people. 

The  ancient  heathen  beliefs  have  been  largely  supplemented  by 
Islamism  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Batak  country  and  by  Chris¬ 
tianity  in  the  northern  part. 

The  Gajus  live  in  the  interior  of  the  Residency  of  Atjah,  just  north 
of  the  Batak  country.  They  are  agriculturists  and  cattle  breeders. 
Their  houses,  villages,  clothing,  and  language  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  Bataks,  but  it  is  apparent  that  the  Atchinese,  Malays,  and 
Korintjis  have  all  contributed  in  some  part  to  their  culture. 

The  Atchinese. — The  origin  of  the  Atchinese  is  not  known  to  a 
certainty,  but  the  Hindus,  Arabs,  Javanese,  Bataks,  and  the  people 
of  Nias  have  all  contributed  in  some  part  to  their  culture.  Generally, 
the  people  of  Atjeh  are  darker,  more  slender  in  build,  and  more  lively 
than  the  Malays.  Their  speech  is  hard  and  passionate,  which  cor¬ 
responds  with  their  nature. 

The  Atchinese  language  is  divided  into  several  dialects,  of  which 
the  Banda  is  the  most  important,  and  is  considered  to  be  the  basic 
Atchinese  language.  The  Arab-Malay  characters  are  used  in  writing. 

The  Atchinese  are,  above  all,  agriculturists,  planting  pepper,  coco¬ 
nuts,  pinang  nuts,  and  sugar.  They  are  also  fishermen.  As  a  result 
of  the  war  with  the  Dutch  Government,  order  is  maintained  with 
difficulty,  especially  in  the  interior,  and  there  is  much  yet  to  be  done 


INTRODUCTION. 


21 


before  a  proper  respect  will  be  developed  for  the  lives  and  property 
of  others.  The  Atchinese  war  began  in  1873  and  has  continued  until 
very  recent  times.  The  war  may  now  be  said  to  be  over,  and  the 
rising  generation  is  learning  self-control  and  discipline,  something 
unknown  to  their  fathers.  With  their  energy,  intelligence,  and 
knowledge  of  business  they  will  develop  rapidly  along  economic  lines. 

Islamism  is  the  religion  of  the  Atchinese. 

Agriculturally,  the  northern  part  of  the  low  and  hill  lands  of  the 
Sumatra  East  Coast  is  very  highly  developed  under  European  con¬ 
trol,  and  there  is  a  large  population  of  immigrant  laborers  drawn 
from  China,  British  India,  Java,  and  other  parts  of  the  Orient,  be¬ 
sides  a  considerable  population  of  Coast  Malays.  In  advertising  the 
Malay,  Javanese,  Chinese,  and  Tamil  scripts  are  used,  according  to 
the  class  it  is  desired  to  reach. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  off  the  West  Coast  of  Sumatra  vary 
greatly  in  culture,  but  their  economic  status  is  largely  similar.  They 
collect  forest  products,  including  damar,  rattans,  and  hardwoods,  and 
cultivate  coconuts  and  native  food  products. 

The  population,  area,  and  density  of  population  in  residencies  out¬ 
side  of  Java  and  Madoera  and  of  Sumatra  are  as  follows: 


Residency. 

Euro¬ 

peans. 

Natives. 

Other 

orientals. 

Total. 

Area 
in  square 
miles. 

Density. 

Banka  and  dependencies . 

541 

81,923 

71,714 

154, 178 

4,473 

34 

Billiton . 

368 

38,351 

20, 762 

59, 481 

1,868 

32 

Western  division  of  Borneo . 

485 

506,134 

67, 018 

573, 637 

56,057 

10 

Southern  and  eastern  division  of 

Borneo . 

1,963 

922, 287 

16,616 

940, 866 

157, 576 

6 

Menado . 

1,787 

729,513 

10, 726 

742,026 

22, 175 

33 

Celebes  and  dependencies . 

2,436 

2, 332, 245 

17,367 

2, 352, 048 

49,603 

47 

Amboina  (except  New  Guinea) . 

3, 1S1 

354, 754 

2,999 

360, 934 

Temato  and  dependencies  (except 

New  Guinea) . 

477 

198,  465 

1,193 

200, 135 

Timor  and  dependencies . 

653 

1, 085, 875 

4’  821 

1,091,349 

17,781 

61 

Bali  and  Lombok . 

314 

1, 336, 485 

8, 081 

1, 344,  880 

4,062 

331 

Total . 

12, 205 

7, 586, 032 

221,297 

7, 819, 534 

BORNEO. 


Except  as  they  are  organized  by  immigrant  peoples,  the  Dyaks  of 
Borneo  have  no  political  grouping  beyond  their  tribes,  some  of  which 
comprise  less  than  a  hundred  members  and  are  named  from  the  river 
or  mountain  near  which  they  dwell.  They  are  largely  nomadic, 
although  many  of  them  have  settled  abodes  and  cultivate  dry  rice 
fields,  while  a  few  near  the  southern  coast  have  copied  the  Javanese 
system  of  irrigation. 

The  total  native  population  of  the  two  Dutch  residencies  on  the 
island,  according  to  the  1917  estimate,  is  1,428,000,  but  this  includes 
coast  natives,  who  are  practical^  all  Malays  and  Buginese. 

About  the  many  different  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Dyaks 
little  is  known.  In  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Residency  of  Borneo 
the  Dgadjoe  language  is  spoken;  to  the  west  of  the  Barito  River, 
that  of  the  Olou  Manjaan;  and  in  the  western  division,  the  Boesang 
language.  There  are  no  systems  of  writing  any  of  these  languages, 
and  therefore  there  is  no  literature. 


22 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITTSH  MALAYA. 


The  nomadic  tribes  are  the  collectors  of  forest  products,  such  as 
copal,  damar,  rattans,  deerskins,  and  horns,  and  the  various  wild 
rubbers  and  guttas.  Trade  in  the  interior  is  by  barter,  but  the  use 
of  the  Dutch  subsidiary  coinage  is  gradually  penetrating  the  trade 
routes. 

Such  industries  as  exist  are  carried  on  in  the  homes  and  are  for 
the  immediate  wants  of  the  individual  and  his  family,  except  iron¬ 
working,  which  is  done  by  men  trained  for  this  work,  a  few  of  whom 
are  found  in  each  village.  The  abundance  of  fish  to  be  found  in  the 
rivers  gives  fishing  a  prominent  place  in  the  life  of  the  Dyaks. 
Animism  is  their  religion. 

ASIATIC  IMMIGRANTS  IN  BORNEO. 

The  Chinese  of  western  Borneo  did  not  come  as  merchants  but  as 
colonists,  and  they  have  become  farmers  and  miners.  In  earlier 
times  they  established  States  which  negotiated  with  the  early  Euro¬ 
peans  independently  of  the  Malay  princes,  but  as  a  result  of  Euro¬ 
pean  occupation  these  independent  Chinese  States  have  disappeared, 
with  a  consequent  gradual  falling  off  in  the  Chinese  population. 

The  relations  of  the  various  foreign  elements  in  Borneo  to  each 
other  and  to  the  natives  are  much  the  same  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
colony. 

According  to  the  1905  census,  the  population  of  the  Western  Resi¬ 
dency  of  Borneo  was  450,929,  of  which  374  were  Europeans,  48,348 
were  Chinese,  1,342  Arabs,  533  Klingalese,  and  400,332  natives. 

The  Malays  settled  along  all  the  coasts  and  rivers  and  in  south  and 
east  Borneo  developed  political  units.  When  the  Europeans  first 
came  to  Borneo  the  Malays  held  political  domination  of  a  large  part 
of  south  and  east  Borneo.  The  Javanese  settled  along  the  south 
coast,  and  on  the  east  coast  the  Buginese  of  Celebes  formed  some 
colonies. 

Twenty-two  Malay  States  were  formed  under  the  Sultan  of  Koetei, 
but  the  total  number  of  his  subjects  is  only  about  100,000.  The 
Malay  princes  did  not  attempt  to  govern  their  principalities,  but  con¬ 
tented  themselves  with  raising  taxes,  so  that  the  Dyaks  in  their  im¬ 
mediate  vicinity  were  either  subdued  and  absorbed  or  forced  with¬ 
out  the  boundaries. 

According  to  the  census  of  1905,  the  population  of  the  South  and 
East  Residency  of  Borneo,  in  which  the  Malays  take  precedence  over 
the  Chinese  in  trade,  was  782,726,  of  which  1,008  were  Europeans, 
7,174  were  Chinese,  1,799  Arabs,  213  Klingalese,  and  772,532  natives. 

CELEBES. 

Buginese  and  M acassarese. — In  the  south  of  Celebes  there  are  two 
tribal  groups,  the  Macassarese  and  the  Buginese,  which  are  so  closely 
related  that  they  will  be  treated  here  jointly. 

The  Macassarese  occupy  the  former  empire  of  Gowa,  which  ex¬ 
tends  from  Maros  and  Macassar  southward  to  Bontain  and  to  the 
island  of  Salcier.  This  is  the  so-called  “  government  territory.” 
The  seat  of  the  Buginese  tribe  is  at  Bone,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
southwestern  “  leg  ”  of  Celebes,  in  what  is  called  the  “  indirect  gov¬ 
ernment  territory,”  but  there  are  many  Buginese  inhabitants  in  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 


Macassarese  towns  of  Maros,  Pankadjene,  Boeloekomba,  and  Sindjai. 
There  are  settlements  of  Buginese  in  Borneo,  at  Samarinda,  Pon- 
tianak,  Satnbas,  and  Soengei  Kakap,  and  in  Flores,  Endeh,  and  other 
islands,  and  on  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  they  formerly  had  some 
influence. 

The  features  of  both  of  these  peoples  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  J avanese,  but  in  color  they  are  much  lighter.  In  character  they 
are  said  to  be  vindictive  and  ready  to  rob  and  murder,  but  this  is 
largely  due  to  their  form  of  government  under  the  native  rulers. 
During  the  past  15  years  they  have  been  brought  completely  under 
the  rule  of  the  Dutch  Government  and  their  better  qualities  are 
becoming  more  evident.  They  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population 
of  the  three  southern  divisions  of  the  residency,  which  is  given  in 
the  1917  estimate  as  627,923. 

The  Buginese  and  Macassarese  have  common  origin  and  differ  in 
the  use  of  separate  languages,  which  have  remained  distinct  and 
unmixed  even  in  those  districts  where  they  live  side  by  side.  The 
chiefs  understand  both  languages,  but  the  common  people  use  their 
own  tribal  tongue.  The  two  languages  have  almost  the  same  gram¬ 
matical  construction,  but  differ  in  regard  to  the  sound  system,  that 
of  the  Macassarese  being  harsh,  while  that  of  the  Buginese  has  a 
nasal  sound.  The  characters  used  in  writing  are  the  same,  with  the 
exception  of  that  used  to  express  this  nasal  sound.  The  literature 
of  the  Buginese  is  much  richer. 

As  agriculturists  they  cultivate  rice,  Turkish  wheat,  coffee,  coco¬ 
nuts,  and  the  areng  palm,  from  which  sugar  is  extracted. 

The  Buginese  are  skillful  navigators  and  merchants  and  their 
small  ships  trade  throughout  Borneo,  and  even  in  the  West  Coast  of 
Sumatra,  and  are  seen  in  all  the  ports  of  J ava  and  the  islands  of  the 
east. 

Weaving  is  a  household  industry,  practiced  by  the  women  of  both 
tribes,  and  the  “  sarongs  ”  and  other  articles  of  dress  made  by  them 
are  prized  very  highly  throughout  the  archipelago,  where  they  are  sold 
by  the  Buginese  mariner  merchants.  They  are  also  clever  workers 
in  gold  and  silver  and  formerly  made  agricultural  tools,  but  these 
latter  are  being  largely  replaced  by  imported  articles. 

Many  Macassar  horses  are  exported  to  the  surrounding  islands, 
where  they  are  favorably  regarded.  The  carabao  is  the  principal 
draft  animal,  although  some  other  cattle  are  raised.  These  are  in 
sufficient  numbers  for  local  use.  Neither  of  the  tribes  under  review 
stands  high  as  cattle  breeders. 

Nominally  the  Buginese  and  Macassarese  are  Islamites,  but  in  fact 
they  are  animists. 

The  Minahasaers  occupy  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the 
island  of  Celebes.  Their  origin  is  not  definitely  known,  but  their 
morals,  customs,  and  language  do  not  encourage  the  presumption  that 
they  came  from  the  islands  to  the  north.  They  are  much  different 
from  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  colony,  being  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  the  children  of  such  of  the  heathens  as  still  survive  are  accept¬ 
ing  Christianity  on  reaching  maturity.  As  a  result  of  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  missions  and  the  Government,  the  civilization  of  these 
people  stands  very  high.  The  land  is  fertile  and  there  is  wide¬ 
spread  prosperity,  which  is  apparent  in  the  dress  and  living  condi- 


24 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


tions  of  the  people  and  in  the  commerce  and  industry.  There  is  but 
little  illiteracy.  The  native  Christians  number  about  200,000,  and 
Mohammedans  are  almost  unknown  in  the  district. 

The  Minahasaers  have  a  language  of  their  own,  which  may  be 
divided  into  two  dialects — the  Tomboeloe  and  the  Tonteboan.  The 
former  is  more  widely  used  and  has  the  richer  literature.  Malay  is 
the  language  of  the  ports,  as  well  as  the  official  language.  It  is  also 
used  throughout  the  colony. 

The  Minahasa  men  are  much  in  demand  in  commerce,  for  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  services,  and  in  the  army,  and  the  draining  of  the  country  of 
its  young  men  is  a  great  drawback  to  the  general  development.  The 
people  consider  themselves  almost  on  an  equality  with  their  rulers, 
the  Dutch,  and  have  developed  a  distaste  for  the  handicrafts  and 
primitive  living  of  their  ancestors. 

The  products  of  agriculture  are  principally  rice,  coconuts,  coffee, 
Turkish  wheat,  and  fruits. 

Other  peoples  of  Celebes  are  the  mountain  tribes,  wrongly  called 
the  Alfoers  and  the  To  Rad j  as.  These  words  are  not  the  names  of 
tribes  or  races,  and  it  is  not  correct  to  use  them  to  indicate  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  the  mid-Celebes,  but  they  incorrectly  designate  the  people  of 
the  north  and  the  people  of  the  south.  There  exist  several  peoples 
named  from  the  districts  to  which  they  belong.  Before  the  Dutch 
Government  had  gained  a  strong  control  of  these  people  the  To 
Rad  j  as  were  governed  by  the  princes  of  Loewoe,  whose  empire  ex¬ 
tended  to  the  whole  of  the  central  part  of  Celebes.  The  people  liv¬ 
ing  in  the  coast  towns  have  adopted  the  dress  and  customs  of  the 
Buginese,  but  in  the  interior  their  clothing  is  very  primitive.  These 
To  Rad  j  as  are  divided  into  many  tribes,  whose  names  all  begin  with 
To,  meaning  “men.”  They  are  largely  animists,  and  their  civiliza¬ 
tion  stands  very  low,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  number  who  have 
adopted  the  Christian  faith. 

As  agriculturists  they  cultivate  principally  rice,  Turkish  wheat, 
and  coffee.  Household  industries  are  carried  on  only  for  the  wants 
of  the  family.  They  excel  in  basketry  and  ironwork.  The  people 
of  the  coast  are  expert  builders  of  native  ships,  while  the  mountain 
peoples  are  the  collectors  of  copal,  rattans,  and  other  forest  prod¬ 
ucts.  The  trade,  which  in  the  aggregate  is  large,  is  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners — Chinese,  Arabs,  and  Europeans. 

The  people  who  inhabit  the  northwest  Celebes,  the  so-called  neck 
of  the  northern  peninsula,  have  the  same  characteristics  as  those  of 
mid-Celebes.  On  the  coast  they  are  principally  of  Buginese  origin, 
while  the  so-called  Alfoers  live  in  the  interior.  These  latter,  like 
the  To  Rad  j  as  of  the  interior,  are  collectors  of  forest  products.  Ap¬ 
proaching  the  northern  peninsula  the  natives  are  found  to  be  more 
highly  developed,  especially  those  inhabiting  the  western  part,  where 
they  have  come  under  the  influence  of  the  inhabitants  of  Minahasa. 

THE  MOLUCCAS. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Moluccas,  which  include  the  Spice  Islands, 
are  more  mixed  than  any  other  people  of  the  archipelago.  The 
Buginese  and,  in  earlier  times,  the  Javanese  settled  in  the  Moluccas 
and  mixed  with  the  coast  people,  but  those  of  the  interior  preserved 
their  original  type. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


There  are  many  distinct  tribes  in  the  interior  of  the  various 
islands,  generally  designated  as  Alfoers,  or  men  of  the  mountains,  an 
uncivilized  people.  It  is  not  politic  to  use  this  term,  and  when  it  is 
necessary  to  mention  a  certain  people  it  is  always  safer  to  use  the 
name  of  the  island  or  district  in  which  they  live.  Many  languages 
are  spoken,  and  the  authorities  claim  that  none  of  them  has  any 
relation  to  the  Malay  Polynesian.  The  language  of  the  ports  is 
Malay. 

The  productivity  of  the  Moluccas  is  not  great.  There  is  almost  no 
agriculture,  and  the  people  live  mainly  on  the  sago  palm,  which 
grows  abundantly,  especially  in  the  island  of  Ceram,  whence  there 
is  a  considerable  export  to  surrounding  islands.  The  principal  prod¬ 
ucts  for  export  are  copra,  copal,  damar,  and  rattan. 

Special  mention  must  be  made  of  the  people  of  the  island  of 
Ceram,  a  large  island  north  of  Amboina,  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  residency  of  that  name.  The  population  of  the  coast  towns 
of  the  island  have  been  very  much  intermixed  with  the  foreign  immi¬ 
grants,  but  the  natives,  who  are  also  carelessly  called  Alfoers,  form 
many  tribes  with  different  languages  and  customs.  These  can  be 
divided  into  four  principal  groups — the  Patasiwa  Hitam,  the  Pata- 
siwa  Puteh,  the  Patalima,  and  the  peoples  of  eastern  Ceram,  who 
have  no  collective  name.  The  black  (hitam)  Patasiwa  are  thus 
designated  because  of  their  practice  of  tattooing  the  body,  while  the 
white  (puteh)  Patasiwa  leave  the  body  as  nature  made  it. 

TIMOR. 

Timor  is  the  eastern  island  of  the  Smaller  Soenda  Group  lying 
in  a  chain  eastward  from  the  southeastern  point  of  Java.  The 
eastern  half  of  this  island*  belongs  to  the  Portuguese.  The  inhab¬ 
itants  belong  to  the  so-called  Papuan  or  curly-headed  race.  This 
race  is  found  also  on  the  other  islands  of  this  group  as  far  as  the 
middle  of  the  island  of  Flores,  westward  of  which  are  found  the 
Malay  types. 

At  the  town  of  Koepang,  the  principal  town  in  Dutch  Timor,  live 
a  separate  people,  the  Mardijkers,  or  descendants  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  island  of  Poti,  who  were  sent  by  the  Dutch  in  the  eighteenth 
century  as  soldiers  to  guard  that  town  from  the  Black  Portuguese, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Portuguese  part  of  the  island.  When  in  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  need  of  this  guard  ceased  it 
was  disbanded  and  became  a  part  of  the  population. 

Off  the  north  coast  of  Portuguese  Timor  lies  the  island  of  Kisar, 
where  the  “  mest'inos  of  Kisar  ”  live.  These  mestinos  are  descendants 
of  the  Dutch,  who  in  early  days  were  stationed  there  for  protection 
against  the  Portuguese.  For  the  greater  part  they  have  not  inter¬ 
bred  with  the  natives  and  are  therefore  of  pure  European  blood,  but 
they  have  adopted  the  native  language  and  customs.  They  number 
about  300. 

Another  peculiar  people  live  on  the  island  of  Semaoe,  off  the  west 
coast  of  Timor.  They  claim  to  have  come  from  the  west. 

At  the  town  of  Koepang  are  also  the  Fatoe  Fetoe,  descendants  of 
Europeans,  Menadonese,  and  Ambonese  fathers  and  Timorese 
mothers,  who  esteem  themselves  far  better  than  the  natives  and 
almost  equal  to  Europeans,  from  whom  they  have  adopted  all  tho 


26  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

bad  qualities.  They  will  not  work  at  the  handicrafts  and  endeavor 
to  enter  the  Government  service.  Many  of  them  are  extremely  poor, 
but  try  to  conceal  their  poverty  by  a  show  of  state. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Alor  group  of  islands  are  divided  into  tw® 
groups — the  people  of  the  coast  and  the  inland  peoples.  The  coast 
people  are  much  mixed  with  the  foreign  elements  and  live  by  trading 
and  fishing.  The  inland  peoples  are  agriculturists,  their  principal 
products  being  Turkish  wheat  and  rice,  and  during  the  past  few  years 
the  cultivation  of  coconuts  and  cotton  has  developed.  Turkish  wheat 
and  cotton  are  exported. 

BALI  AND  LOMBOK. 

The  inhabitants  of  Bali  are  of  quite  a  different  type  from  the  other 
natives  of  the  archipelago,  being  of  Hindu- Javanese  origin,  de¬ 
scendants  of  the  subjects  of  the  Hindu  empire  in  Java  who  migrated 
to  Bali  when  Islam  intruded  and  mixed  with  the  former  population 
of  that  island.  From  Bali  they  crossed  to  the  island  of  Lombok 
and  subdued  the  natives  there,  some  of  whom  fled  to  the  island  of 
Soembawa.  The  descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  Bali,  the 
Kali  Aga,  still  have  Indonesian  customs,  although  they  have  accepted 
much  of  the  Balinese  culture.  The  native  population  of  Bali  is 
902,000  and  of  Lombok  434,000. 

The  language  of  the  Balinese  has  been  influenced  much  by  the 
Javanese,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  by  Buginese  and  other  languages, 
but  the  dual  language  of  the  Javanese,  one  for  the  superior  and  the 
other  for  the  inferior,  is  not  used,  although,  as  in  all  languages,  there 
are  some  words  relating  to  the  higher  classes.  The  system  of  writing 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  Javanese.  Records  are  inscribed 
on  the  leaves  of  the  pandan  tree  instead  of  on  paper.  The  Balinese 
literature  is  rich  and  at  its  best  is  poetic. 

The  products  of  agriculture  are  rice,  coconuts,  coffee,  beans,  tobacco, 
Turkish  wheat,  cotton,  indigo,  onions,  and  some  minor  products. 

The  Balinese  are  excellent  agriculturists  and  cattle  breeders,  and 
there  is  a  large  export  of  hogs,  generally  to  Singapore  and  China. 
The  Balinese  system  of  irrigation — the  a  soebak  ”  system — is  much 
superior  to  anything  used  by  the  other  natives  of  the  archipelago, 
and  the  Government  has  accepted  their  methods  in  irrigation  control. 

Industry,  particularly  in  its  relation  to  art,  stands  very  high. 
Decoration  in  Bali  is  very  closely  related  to  religion ;  the  temples  are 
true  objects  of  art,  and  even  the  entrances  of  common  houses  are 
decorated  with  fine  carving. 

Metal  working  in  iron,  copper,  and  gold  is  done  with  great  skill, 
especially  the  inlaying  of  gold  leaves  in  other  metals. 

The  Balinese  excel  in  the  art  of  weaving  and  plaiting.  Balinse 
pottery  is  excellent;  in  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  all  articles  made  by 
the  Balinese  show  taste  and  skill  in  decoration. 

The  religion  of  the  principal  part  of  the  inhabitants  is  Hinduism. 

The  people  of  some  parts  of  the  island  of  Lombok  are  similar  to 
those  of  Bali,  as  the  Balinese  were  the  conquerors  of  Lombok.  Be¬ 
sides  the  conquerors  there  are  the  Sasaks,  who  are  of  an  entirely 
different  type,  and  the  Bodhas,  a  small  tribe  related  to  the  Sasaks. 

Their  language  differs  much  from  the  Balinese,  although  they  have 
borrowed  many  of  the  Balinese  words  and  have  adopted  the  Balinese 


INTRODUCTION. 


27 


system  of  writing.  Their  literature  consists  principally  of  stories 
of  Arab  and  Malayan  origin,  and  many  of  them  speak  both  the  Malay 
and  Balinese  languages.  By  establishing  schools  among  them,  an 
effort  is  being  made  by  the  Government  to  raise  their  standard  of 
work  and  living.  They  are  agriculturists,  cultivating  the  same  prod¬ 
ucts  as  the  Balinese.  They  live  chiefly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island,  but  there  are  some  in  the  west  and  a  few  at  Karangasem,  in 
Bah. 

While  the  Bodhas  are  still  animists,  the  Sasaks  have  accepted 

Islam. 


NEW  GUINEA. 


The  inhabitants  of  New  Guinea  are  to  a  very  large  extent  the 
Papuans.  As  was  said  of  the  word  “Alfoer,”  so  “  Papua  ”  is  a  term 
signifying  a  man  of  the  interior  and  is  not  known  to  the  natives,  who 
designate  themselves  according  to  their  district. 

Trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  barter,  as  few  Papuans  know  the 
use  of  money,  except  near  such  settlements  as  Merauke,  Manokwari, 
and  Fak-Fak,  where  Dutch  money  is  accepted  in  exchange  for 
products. 

Outside  the  trade  settlements  the  natives  are  naked,  or  at  most 
wear  a  loin  cloth,  being  very  little  removed  from  absolute  savagery. 
They  trade  in  forest  products,  which  are  exchanged  for  such  western 
products  as  they  fancy  or  require. 

The  hunting  for  birds  of  paradise  in  New  Guinea  is  done  by  for¬ 
eigners,  usually  natives  of  Ternate. 

The  Chinese  monopolize  the  retail  business  with  the  natives  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  colony,  taking  in  exchange  for  western 
manufactures  the  products  of  the  country.  They  are  the  carpenters, 
tinsmiths,  and  handicraftsmen  in  every  occupation  that  the  native  is 
Unqualified  to  fill;  they  are  independent  agriculturists  in  western 
Borneo  and  laborers  in  the  tin  mines  of  Banka  and  Billiton  and  in 
the  tobacco  plantations  of  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Residency.  They 
are  classed  under  two  general  headings — the  Paranakans  and  the 
Singkehs,  the  Chinese  who  are  born  in  the  colony  and  the  Chinese 
immigrants.  The  blood  of  those  born  in  the  colony  is  often  slightly 
mixed  with  that  of  the  natives,  but  they  retain  their  Chinese  customs, 
although  modified  by  local  conditions,  and  their  strong  Chinese  char¬ 
acteristics.  As  to  living  conditions,  they  adapt  themselves  to  circum¬ 
stances  as  they  find  them.  When  living  on  plantations  or  in  camps 
they  approximate  the  living  conditions  of  their  homeland;  when  in 
the  native  towns  as  small  merchants,  they  adopt  many  of  the  native 
habits  of  life;  when  they  acquire  wealth,  they  generally  copy  Euro¬ 
pean  dress  and  living  conditions. 

The  1905  census  gave  the  number  of  Chinese  in  the  colony  at  1.8  per 
cent  of  the  native  population. 

The  Arabs  were  established  in  the  archipelago  long  before 
Magellan  discovered  the  Spice  Islands,  and  their  position  is  firmly 
intrenched  through  their  superior  status  as  Mohammedans  and  their 
superior  ability  in  finance.  They  use  their  religious  authority  to 
their  financial  advantage  without  scruple,  as  do  the  natives  who 
have  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  They  are  primarily  money 
lenders  and  usurers.  In  comparing  them  with  the  Chinese  in  this 


28 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


respect,  Clive  Day  in  his  book,  The  Dutch  in  Java,  quotes  a  Javanese 
saying,  “  They  both  bleed  us,  but  the  Moor  hurts:” 

LABOR. 

In  Java  employers  of  labor  find  an  ample  supply  ready  at  hand. 
Sugar-estate  laborers  are  the  people  who  raise  rice  and  other  food 
crops  on  the  land  in  the  alternative  period.  (See  “Agricultural 
products.”)  The  tobacco  labor,  likewise,  is  already  on  the  land.  The 
skilled  labor  on  the  rubber  estates  is  generally  resident  of  the  plan¬ 
tation  itself,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  common  labor.  Coffee  har¬ 
vesters  are  recruited  in  part  from  near-by  villages.  The  labor  on 
the  tea  estates  is  usually  resident  on  the  estate  or  in  near-by  villages. 
Harbor  labor  in  Soerabaya  is  made  up  of  Madoerese,  at  Semarang  of 
Javanese,  and  at  Batavia  of  a  mixture  of  all  classes  of  natives,  but 
very  largely  of  Soendanese.  Railroad  labor  is  most  largely  drawn 
from  the  district  in  which  the  work  is  to  be  done. 

In  the  Outer  Possessions  there  is  a  great  scarcity  of  labor  for 
plantations,  except  in  the  Residency  of  Sumatra  West  Coast,  and 
it  is  imported  mainly  from  Java,  although  the  tobacco  planters 
import  Chinese  coolies  for  their  heavier  work,  and  some  rubber 
planters  import  Tamils  (southern  British  Indians).  The  cost  of 
securing  Javanese  laborers  and  transporting  them  to  the  plantation 
in  1913  was  approximately  from  155  to  165  florins  each,  and  a  year 
later  it  was  184  florins,  besides  the  return  fare  on  completion  of 
the  contract.  In  addition  to  the  wage  and  u  indent  ”  charge  there 
must  be  added  the  cost  of  hospital  service,  which  is  given  free  to 
the  employees  under  Government  supervision. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  there  were  no  labor  or¬ 
ganizations  in  the  colony,  but  there  has  developed,  out  of  the  dis¬ 
turbances  of  oriental  thought,  a  movement  claiming  to  be  religious 
in  conception,  called  the  Sarikat  Islam,  or  Bond  of  Islam.  In 
Java  many  subsidiary  “bonds”  have  grown  out  of  this  movement 
that  are,  in  effect,  labor  organizations.  The  chief  of  these  is  the 
Sugar  Workers’  Bond,  and  this  organization  has  shown  some  unity 
and  strength.  Among  the  agricultural  industries  more  remote  from 
the  ports  and  from  the  centers  of  sugar  culture  this  movement  had 
less  chance  to  develop,  but  has  made  some  headway. 

The  following  table  shows  the  monthly  wages  on  the  railways 
of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  as  of  November  15,  1920: 


Occupation. 

State 
railways 
(Java  and 
Sumatra). 

Nether¬ 
lands  Indies 
Spoor  weg 
(Java).1 

Deli  Spoor- 
weg  Mij. 

( Sumatra). 

Tram  lines 
(Java). 

Locomotive  drivers2 . 

Florins. 

43-200 

Florins. 

25-125 

Florins. 

4,5-125 

Florins. 

80-155 

Firemen . 

38-  85 

20-  55 

50-  90 

2  60 

Brakemen . 

23-  38 

15-  30 

29-  90 

j  42 

Station  agents . 

53-210 

70-170 

100-250 

45-210 

Switchmen . 

23-  38 

14-  22 

*42 

Wipers,  cleaners,  and  common  labor . 

23-  38 

11-  14 

29-  45 

*30 

Track  foreman . . 

38-  48 

25-  40 

50-130 

*60 

Track  workers . 

23-  38 

11-  14 

*30 

1  Wa"^  paid  by  this  railway  before  Mar.  1,  1920,  at  which  time  an  increase  was  to  have  been  made. 

*  Mileage  extra. 

*  Average  per  month. 


INTRODUCTION. 


29 


The  following  wage  schedule  for  harbor  labor  was  furnished  by 
the  manager  of  a  lighterage  and  stevedoring  company  at  Soerabaya, 
November  20,  1920 : 

Florins. 

Common  laborers _ per  day _ 0.  75-  2.  00 

Maximum  earning  on  piecework _ do _  5.  00-  7.  00 

Crane  operation _ per  month _  30.  00-  75.  00 

Office  help _ do _  30.  00-200.  00 

Watchmen _ do _  40.  00-150.  00 

Native  supervisors _ do _  30. 00-100.  00 

The  wages  paid  to  workers  on  sugar  estates  in  Java  vary  in  differ¬ 
ent  sections.  The  district  of  Pasoeroean  is  selected  as  representa¬ 
tive  of  wage  conditions  in  east  Java,  the  district  of  Pekalongan  as 
representative  of  central  Java,  and  the  district  of  Djokjakarta  as  rep¬ 
resentative  of  south-central  Java.  This  wage  scale  is  for  work  dur¬ 
ing  harvest.  Most  of  the  workers  get  a  percentage  bonus  according 
to  the  profits  of  the  year’s  business.  The  following  table  shows  the 
prices  paid  during  the  harvest  season,  November  20,  1921 : 


Workers. 

Pasoeroean. 

Pekalongan. 

Djokjakarta. 

Mini¬ 

mum. 

Maxi¬ 

mum. 

Mini¬ 

mum. 

Maxi¬ 

mum. 

Mini¬ 
mum 
increase 
for each 
year  of 
service. 

Mini¬ 

mum. 

Maxi¬ 

mum. 

Coolies: 

• 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins, 

Male . 

. .  .per  day. . 

0. 45 

0.55 

0.50 

0.55 

0.54 

Female . 

..... .do.*. . . 

.35 

.45 

.40 

Children . 

. do _ 

.25 

.35 

.27 

Helpers  and  household  servants. 

. do _ 

.55 

.95 

.60 

1.00 

0.  05 

0.45 

.70 

Machinists . 

. do _ 

.60 

2.  50 

1. 10 

2.00 

.10 

.75 

3.00 

Head  machinists . 

. do _ 

2.50 

4.00 

2.50 

Up. 

.  10 

Boss  machinists . 

per  month. . 

60.00 

111.  00 

Factory  gang  bosses . 

! .  .per  day. . 

.60 

1.00 

.75 

i.  66 

.  50 

1.05 

Assistant  head  gardeners . 

per  month. . 

9.00 

15.  00 

18.00 

20.00 

15.00 

20.  00 

Head  gardener.. . 

* . do _ 

15.00 

35.00 

20.00 

50.  00 

2.  50 

20.00 

35.00 

Head  supervisors . 

. do _ 

55.00 

100.*00 

60.00 

Up. 

5.00 

35.00 

75.00 

Garden  watchmen . 

. do _ 

12.00 

18.00 

12.50 

15.00 

Field  clerks . 

. do _ 

25.00 

60.00 

“Bibit”  bosses . 

. do _ 

17.50 

35.00 

20.00 

50.  00 

2.50 

Track  bosses . 

. do _ 

18.00 

55.00 

.60 

1.00 

.10 

18.00 

30.00 

Cane-cutter  bosses . 

. do _ 

15.00 

25.00 

20.00 

50.00 

2.50 

Transport  bosses . 

. do _ 

20.00 

50.00 

2.50 

Head  bosses . 

. do _ 

50.00 

Up. 

5.00 

35.00 

75.00 

Assistant . 

15.00 

25.00 

18.00 

24.00 

2.00 

15.00 

20.00 

Clerks . 

. do _ 

30.00 

75.00 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

25.00 

40.00 

Head  clerks . 

. do _ 

80.00 

100.00 

60.00 

120.00 

10.00 

45.00 

90.00 

Helpers  in  laboratory . 

. do _ 

15.00 

25.00 

15.00 

25.00 

Laboratory  men . . .  * . 

. do _ 

30.00 

50.00 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

30.00 

60.00 

Head  laboratory  men . 

. do _ 

55.00 

125.00 

75.00 

125.00 

10.00 

60.00 

100.00 

Surveyors . 

. do _ 

30.00 

100.00 

60.00 

120.00 

10.00 

30.00 

100. 00 

Cashiers . 

. do _ 

80.00 

125.00 

60.  00 

120.00 

10.00 

60.00 

100.00 

Paymasters . 

. do _ 

18.  00 

35.00 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

Native  warehouse  supervisors . . . . 

. do _ 

25.00 

50.00 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

Office  messengers. . .'. . 

. do _ 

12.00 

18.00 

Scale  boss . 

. do _ 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

20.00 

40.00 

Scale  clerk . 

. do _ 

22.50 

50.00 

25.00 

50.00 

5.00 

Weighers . 

. do _ 

20.00 

30.00 

18.00 

24.00 

2.00 

1 .60 

U90 

Chinese  sugar  boilers: 

First  class . 

. do _ 

100.00 

150.00 

150.00 

200.00 

Second  class . 

60.00 

110.00 

75.00 

150.00 

5.00 

60.00 

150.00 

Third  class . 

. do _ 

30.00 

60.00 

30.00 

45.00 

5.00 

Native  sugar  boilers,  second  class 

. do _ 

50.00 

125.00 

5.00 

Native  helper  cookers,  third  class 

. do _ 

20.00 

30.00 

2.50 

1  Per  day, 


30 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Wages  on  a  rubber,  coffee,  and  sisal  producing  estate  in  Java 
during  the  first  half  of  1920,  taken  from  pay-roll  sheets,  were  as 
follows : 

European  staff, — Chief  estate  assistants  received  250  to  300  florins 
per  month ;  chief  factory  assistants,  300  florins  per  month ;  machinist, 
250  florins ;  bookkeeper,  250  florins.  It  was  proposed  to  increase  the 
above  by  30  per  cent  immediately. 

Native  labor, — Head  field  supervisors  received  30  to  50  florins  per 
month;  tappers  (rubber),  50  to  80  cents  per  day,  the  latter  being 
paid  according  to  the  rubber  content  of  their  daily  collection.  Coffee 
harvesters,  according  to  the  abundance  of  crop,  earn  from  60  cents  to 
1  florin  per  day  and  sisal  harvesters,  paid  by  quantity,  earn  about 
70  cents  per  day.  Common  labor  is  paid  at  the  rate  of  40  cents  per 
day  for  men  and  25  cents  for  women. 

Native  factory  help. — Rubber-machine  supervisors  were  paid  20 
to  30  florins  per  month ;  skilled  machine  laborers,  15  to  20  florins  per 
month;  coolies,  men,  50  cents  per  day;  coolies,  women,  30  cents  per 
day.  -  Coffee-kiln  supervisor  received  25  florins  per  month;  mill 
supervisor,  20  florins  per  month ;  sorter  supervisor,  woman,  50  cents 
per  day  and  1  cent  each  for  sewing  bags ;  coolies,  men,  40  cents  per 
day ;  women  sorters,  50  cents  for  136  pounds.  Sisal-machine  super¬ 
visors  received  25  florins  per  month;  coolies,  men  and  women,  50 
cents  per  day ;  drying,  sorting,  and  packing  supervisors,  20  florins 
per  month ;  coolies  in  drying  yards,  40  cents  per  day ;  coolies,  women, 
sorting  and  packing,  10  cents  per  136  pounds ;  coolies,  men,  pressing, 
60  cents  per  136  pounds. 

Other  native  labor. — Master  carpenters  received  75  florins  per 
month;  carpenters  and  helpers,  60  cents  to  1.50  florins  per  day; 
master  blacksmiths,  75  florins  per  month;  blacksmiths  and  helpers, 
60  cents  to  1.50  florins  per  day;  master  bricklayers,  60  florins  per 
month ;  bricklayers  and  helpers,  60  cents  to  1.50  florins  per  day. 

CONTRACT  LABOR  LAW,  POPULARLY  KNOWN  AS  «  POENALE  SANCTIE.” 

The  following  is  an  official  statement  of  the  development  of  the 
above-mentioned  law  and  the  attitude  of  the  Government  toward  its 
continuation : 

The  ordinance  (Government  Gazette  421,  1915)  governing  the 
responsibility  of  contract  laborers  in  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Resi¬ 
dency  to  fulfill  their  contracts,  popularly  called  “Poenale  Sanctie,” 
fixes  the  punishment  of  the  laborer  for  failure  to  live  up  to  the 
terms  of  his  contract  as  well  as  the  responsibility  of  the  estate  owners 
and  managers. 

Up  to  1872  the  imported  laborers  in  this  district  were  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Sultan,  who  left  the  punishment  of  all  minor 
offenses  to  the  planters,  but  in  that  year  the  jurisdiction  over  all 
immigrant  inhabitants  was  taken  over  by  the  Netherlands  East 
Indian  Government.  Under  the  laws  as  then  existent  all  cases  con¬ 
cerning  Chinese  and  Tamil  (southern  British  Indians)  laborers  in¬ 
volving  100  florins  or  three  months’  imprisonment  came  before  the 
assistant  resident.  This  took  from  the  planters  the  police  powers 
formerly  enjoyed,  but  the  Government  did  not  provide  an  adequate 
substitute,  and  it  is  claimed  that  many  disorders  resulted.  At  the 
end  of  1875  there  were  59  estates  in  this  district  employing  about 


INTRODUCTION. 


31 


4,500  Chinese  and  1,000  Tamils  and  Javanese.  In  order  to  get  a 
sufficient  supply  of  coolie  labor  the  planters  had  to  make  advances 
to  the  recruits  before  leaving  their  native  lands  to  cover  their  debts, 
to  provide  temporary  support  for  their  families  and  for  expenses  of 
travel.  The  landing  of  a  coolie  at  a  Sumatra  port  involved  a  con¬ 
siderable  investment  of  money  on  the  part  of  the  estate,  and  this 
investment  was  jeopardized  by  the  new  laws,  under  which  the  max¬ 
imum  punishment  for  breach  of  contract  was  from  8  to  12  days’ 
labor  on  public  works.  Desertions  immediately  on  arrival  became 
common,  and  planters  had  to  write  off  heavy  losses  annually  for  this 
account. 

In  June,  1875,  the  planters  came  together  in  an  effort  to  obtain 
an  increase  of  punishment  for  breaches  of  contract  and  a  fine  for 
estates  employing  deserters.  This  met  with  much  opposition  from 
the  Minister  of  the  Colonies  and  from  the  Parliament  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands.  No  relief  was  given  them  until  July,  1880,  when  the  first 
coolie  ordinance  came  into  existence. 

The  coolie  ordinance ,  known  as  “ Poenale  Sane  tie  T — This  ordi¬ 
nance  laid  down  rules  for  the  drawing  up  of  contracts  between  the 
managers  of  agricultural  and  industrial  undertakings  and  laborers 
from  without  the  district  and  for  registration  of  the  contract  by  the 
head  of  the  local  government,  who  was  to  guarantee  that  the  laborer 
signed  the  contract  absolutely  of  his  own  free  will  and  that  he 
understood  its  conditions.  It  decreed  that  the  contract  must  include 
the  name,  age,  nationality,  and,  if  possible,  the  tribe  of  the  laborer, 
the  name  of  the  employers,  the  type  of  labor  to  be  rendered,  and 
the  number  of  working  hours  per  day  (the  maximum  to  be  10)  ; 
that  the  duration  could  not  be  more  than  three  years,  and  that  the 
employer  was  to  provide  the  laborer  with  lodgings  and  medical 
treatment. 

In  the  interest  of  the  employer  this  ordinance  provided  that  the 
period  during  which  the  laborer  had  been  idle,  for  furlough,  deser¬ 
tion,  or  more  than  one  month’s  sickness,  should  be  added  to  the 
term  of  the  contract;  that  the  coolie  could  not  leave  the  estate  with¬ 
out  the  written  permission  of  the  manager,  but  that  such  permis¬ 
sion  should  not  be  refused  if  the  workman  desired  to  serve  a  com¬ 
plaint  to  the  local  government,  and  that  in  such  cases  no  more  than 
three  coolies  might  go  together.  It  also  provided  that  differences 
of  opinion  in  the  reading  of  the  contract  should  be  settled  by  the 
head  of  the  local  government  and  for  appeal  from  this  decision  to 
the  civil  or  criminal  judges. 

“  Poenale  Sanctie  ”  concerned  transgressions  and  intentional  viola¬ 
tions  of  the  contract.  Transgressions  were  to  be  punished  by  a  fine 
of,  at  most,  100  florins  for  Europeans  and  25  florins,  or  12  days’ 
labor,  for  natives  or  those  classed  similarly.  Intentional  violation 
was  liable  to  a  fine  of,  at  the  most,  100  florins  for  the  employer  and 
three  months’  labor  on  the  public  works  for  the  coolie.  The  ordi¬ 
nance  further  enumerated  the  acts  which  should  count  as  intentional 
violation,  viz,  desertion  and  persistent  refusal  to  work,  both  only 
prosecutable  on  the  accusation  of  the  employer.  For  first  offenses 
the  accused  could  escape  punishment  if,  with  the  approval  of  the 
accuser,  he  should  return  to  work  before  the  pronouncement  of  the 
sentence,  but  on  second  and  subsequent  convictions  the  coolie  could 


32 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


be  punished  with  from  three  months  to  one  year  of  forced  labor 
without  chains. 

With  a  view  to  the  maintenance  of  peace  the  ordinance  made  re¬ 
bellion,  insult  or  menace,  disturbance  of  the  peace,  incitement,  fight¬ 
ing,  and  drunkenness  (if  the  acts  were  not  to  be  comprehended  as 
misdemeanors)  punishable  by  a  fine  of  at  most  25  florins  or  labor  on 
public  works  during  12  days. 

The  ordinance  also  provided  that  on  the  completion  of  the  con¬ 
tract,  or  when  an  employer  intentionally  abrogated  a  contract,  or 
when  a  contract  is  considered  as  annulled,  owing  to  the  coolies’  con¬ 
tinued  unfitness  for  labor,  such  coolies  should  be  sent  back  to  the 
place  of  origin  on  the  first  possible  occasion  by  the  employers  or,  if 
they  should  neglect  to  do  so,  by  the  Government  at  the  employer’s 
expense,  but  if  the  coolie  should  wish  to  remain  and  had  or  could 
obtain  work  sufficient  to  maintain  existence  he  would  be  allowed 
to  do  so. 

This  ordinance  of  1880  was  made  the  model  for  many  other  residen¬ 
cies  in  the  Outer  Possessions  during  the  following  years.  In  1886  an 
ordinance  came  into  existence  in  the  West  Coast  Residency  of 
Sumatra;  in  1887  Palembang,  Sumatra,  had  a  similar  ordinance,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Ternate  in  1888,  west  Borneo  and  Benkoelen  in  1889,  and 
the  Lampongs,  south  and  east  Borneo,  and  Riouw  in  1891. 

The  ordinance  of  1880  for  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra,  outlined 
above,  has  been  repeatedly  altered  and  supplemented  during  the 
intervening  years.  In  its  present  form  it  was  proclaimed  by  ordi¬ 
nance  in  the  Government  Gazette  No.  421  of  1915,  by  which  some 
radical  alterations  were  made. 

The  obligation  to  sign  a  contract  fell  into  disuse,  as  the  rights 
and  obligations  of  the  employer  and  the  laborer  were  governed  by 
ordinance.  Further,  the  various  methods  of  recruiting  labor  had 
to  be  taken  into  consideration — by  immigration  contract  made  out¬ 
side  the  district;  with  persons  who  came  into  the  Province  for  the 
first  time;  by  reengagement  of  persons  who  were  continuing  work 
after  the  expiration  of  their  engagement. 

Penal  clauses  which  were  in  former  ordinances  covering  “  extreme 
laziness  ”  and  “  refusal  to  work  ”  fell  into  disuse.  “  Intentional 
violation  of  agreement”  is  now  understood  to  include  “nonfulfill¬ 
ment  of  the  obligation  to  be  present  on  the  estate  on  time,”  “  deser¬ 
tion,”  and  “  persistent  refusal  t‘o  perform  the  obligatory  labor.” 

The  greatest  change  in  the  mind  of  the  legislator  was  apparent  in 
article  24  of  this  new  coolie  ordinance.  This  article  gives  the  Gov¬ 
ernor  General  authority  to  shorten  the  maximum  term  of  all  agree¬ 
ments  or  stipulated  groups  of  agreements.  (The  term  of  an  immi¬ 
gration  contract  is  3  years  and  a  reengagement  contract  18  months.) 
It  states : 

The  stipulations  of  this  ordinance  containing  threats  with  punishment  for 
violation  of  the  labor  contract  on  the  part  of  the  laborers  and  for  refusing  to 
perform  their  duty,  as  also  those  concerning  the  return  of  laborers  to  the 
estates  by  force,  cease  to  exist  for  the  estates  in  the  whole  Province  or  in  a 
certain  area  for  all  agreements  of  a  certain  kind  and  tendency,  at  a  time  stated 
by  the  Governor  General,  as  soon  as  in  his  judgment  circumstances  admit. 

The  control  of  labor  under  this  law  is  under  the  service  for  labor 
inspection,  representatives  of  which  are  required  to  visit  the  estates 
and  to  receive  complaints  from  both  the  laborers  and  the  employers. 


INTRODUCTION. 


33 


Recruiting  is  done  by  the  two  principal  planters’  societies  of  the 
Sumatra  East  Coast — the  Deli  Planters’  Association  (called  the 
D.  P.  Y.)  and  the  Algemeene  Vereeniging  van  Rubber  Planters 
ter  Oostkust  van  Sumatra  (called  the  AVROS) — and  by  profes¬ 
sional  recruiters.  Bgth  these  associations  also  depend  largely  on 
the  professional  recruiters. 

In  the  introduction  of  the  colonial  report  of  1917  it  was  stated : 

“  Poenale  Sanctie  ”  creates  a  state  of  affairs  deviating  from  the  normal  course 
of  justice  which  may  no  longer  be  maintained  than  is  strictly  necessary,  and 
that  it  also,  apart  from  the  known  objections  of  a  theoretical  and  practical 
nature,  ought  to  disappear  as  being  inconsistent  with  a  colonial  government 
founded  upon  modem  principles,  as  it  has  already  disappeared  in  other  col¬ 
onies.  *  *  * 

That  the  penal-law  compulsion  for  the  time  being  still  remains  in 
force  finds  its  reason  solely  in  the  consideration  that  the  planters 
ought  to  be  granted  a  fair  transition  period  for  the  drawing  up  of 
measures  to  obtain  sufficient  free  labor. 

WAGES  PAID  CONTRACT  COOLIES  AND  OTHER  LABOR. 

In  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Government  on  December  31,  1920, 
there  wTere  employed  238,336  contract  coolies,  as  follows :  23,886  Chi¬ 
nese,  150,691  male  and  61,704  female  natives  of  Java,  1,950  British' 
Indians,  and  105  others.  The  wage  schedule  for  first  contract  coolies 
was  55  cents  (1  florin =$0,402  mint  par;  1  cent=one  one-hundredth  of 
a  guilder  or  florin)  per  day  for  men  and  50  cents  for  women,  and  re¬ 
engaged  coolies  received  60  cents  per  day  for  men  and  55  cents  for 
women.  Rice  was  sold  to  contract  coolies  at  20  cents  per  catty  (1 
catty— 1.36  pounds).  On  the  same  date  there  were  44,063  noncon¬ 
tract  or  “  free  ”  coolies  working  on  the  European-owned  estates  at 
from  70  cents  to  4  florins  per  day,  according  to  their  occupation,  while 
wages  of  mandoers  (native  supervisors)  were  from  25  florins  to 
140  florins  per  month  for  men  and  from  1  to  1.50  florins  per  day  for 
women.  All  contract  coolies  received  hospital  service  free. 

In  the  Residency  of  Sumatra  West  Coast  there  were  3,037  contract 
coolies  besides  those  working  for  the  Government-owned  coal  mines. 
The  wage  schedule  for  first  contract  coolies  was  35  cents  for  men  and 
30  cents  for  women,  and  reengaged  coolies  received  40  cents  and  35 
cents,  respectively.  The  price  of  rice  for  contract  coolies  was  fixed  at  10 
cents  per  ca-tty.  First  contract  coolies  working  in  the  mines  received 
55  cents  per  day  for  underground  work  and  44  cents  for  Surface  work, 
and  reengaged  coolies  received  from  60  to  65  cents  for  underground 
work,  and  from  50  to  55  cents  for  surface  work,  with  a  fixed  charge  for 
rice  of  from  10  to  14  cents  per  catty.  All  contract  coolies  received 
hospital  service  free.  There  were  also  3,064  local  laborers  working  for 
estates  owned  by  Europeans,  who  received  from  40  to  60  cents  for 
the  lowest  classes  of  work,  while  skilled  labor  was  paid  as  high  as 
3  florins  per  day. 

In  the  Lampong  districts  of  southern  Sumatra  there  were  10,244 
contract  coolies  receiving  41  cents  per  day  for  men  and  from  30  to  36 
cents  for  the  women,  reengaged  coolies  receiving  47  cents  and  42 
cents,  respectively,  with  a  free  issue  of  24  catties  of  rice  per  month 
for  men  and  18  catties  for  women.  Hospital  service  was  supplied 
free. 


34 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  "MALAYA. 


There  were  also  2,435  other  laborers  employed  by  the  European- 
owned  undertakings  under  various  types  of  agreements  whose  wages 
ranged  from  75  cents  to  1.50  florins. 

In  the  Kesidency  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Borneo  there  were 
approximately  8,400  contract  coolies,  900  of  whom  were  women.  On 
the  estates  near  Bandjermasin  the  contract  coolies  were  paid  41  cents 
per  day  for  the  men  and  36  cents  for  the  women,  with  the  price  of 
rice  fixed  at  10  cents  per  catty.  In  the  coal  mines  various  rates  of 
wages  are  paid.  Some  mines  pay  70  cents  for  underground  work 
and  60  cents  for  surface  work,  and  when  the  coolies  receive  food  from 
their  employers  they  are  charged  from  20  to  30  cents  per  day  for  it. 
One  mine  paid  a  minimum  wage  of  41  cents  per  day,  with  an  increase 
to  reengaged  coolies  of  5  cents  per  day  for  every  additional  year. 
Besides  the  contract  coolies  there  were  7,960  “  free  ”  or  noncontract 
coolies.  The  Bataafsche  Petroleum  Mij.  is  the  largest  employer  of 
labor  in  this  district.  Its  minimum  wage  for  contract  coolies  was 
45  cents  for  Javanese  and  other  native  men  and  35  cents  for  women, 
while  for  Chinese  it  was  52  cents.  Macassar  men  were  paid  from  80 
to  90  cents  per  day,  according  to  the  character  of  the  work  performed, 
and  other  special  workers  received  from  85  cents  to  1.50  florins  per 
day,  while  the  maximum  wage  for  special  workers  was  5  florins  per 
day. 

Other  districts  where  contract  coolies  are  employed  are  Amboina 
and  Ternate,  where  the  common  contract  coolie  men  receive  a  mini¬ 
mum  of  25  cents  per  day  and  the  women  20  cents,  with  one  catty  of 
rice  per  day  free  and  an  allowance  of  salt  and  clothing. 

EMIGRATION. 

There  is  a  considerable  export  of  Javanese  coolies  to  Dutch  Guiana, 
Netherlands  West  Indies,  and  some  to  the  Federated  Malay  States, 
Straits  Settlements,  British  North  Borneo,  and  French  Indo-China. 
Very  elaborate  regulations  are  provided  defining  their  rights  and 
obligations.  A  copy  of  these  regulations  is  on  file  with  the  Far 
Eastern  Division,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

COLONIZATION. 

In  1905  an  area  in  the  Lampong  district,  in  southern  Sumatra, 
was  opened  for  colonization  where  indigent  J avanese  were  given  land 
and  advances*  of  stock  and  implements.  Under  the  Government’s 
supervision  the  colonists  have  succeeded  in  establishing  themselves, 
and  the  success  of  this  colony  has  led  to  the  opening  of  another  in 
southern  Borneo.  It  is  proposed  to  extend  this  colonizing  effort  to 
areas  where  the  population  is  sparse,  and  thus  in  time  to  provide 
laborers  for  the  development  of  European  agricultural  enterprises. 

FOREIGN  COMMERCE. 

The  great  per  acre  production  of  Java  and  aggregate  production 
of  the  vast  areas  in  the  Outer  Possessions,  combined  with  the  buying 
power  of  47,000,000  people  of  small  individual  purchasing  capacity, 
but  largely  homogeneous,  makes  this  colony  important  in  world  trade 
regardless  of  other  considerations,  but,  aside  from  its  very  consider¬ 
able  purchasing  capacity,  it  is  very  important  to  the  United  States, 


INTRODUCTION 


35 


for  the  reason  that  it  is  located  at  a  point  where  homeward  cargoes 
are  most  needed,  not  only  by  the  ships  of  European  countries  but 
by  American  ships. 

The  United  States  is  the  ultimate  consumer  of  a  very  large  part  of 
the  products  which  before  the  war  were  routed  through  European 
market  cities.  During  the  war  years  much  of  this  cargo  was  shipped 
direct  to  the  United  States,  and  in  the  post-wTar  period  a  quite  natural 
effort  has  been  made  to  reestablish  the  European  markets  in  their 
former  position. 

The  figures  in  the  following  tables,  which  will  be  analyzed  in  an¬ 
other  section,  are  taken  from  volume  1  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  import  and  export  returns.  They  are  given  merely  to  illus¬ 
trate  in  the  broadest  way  the  extent  of  the  disorganization  of  the 
trade  and  the  ability  of  the  United  States  to  consume  the  products 
of  the  colony.  During  the  period  covered  by  the  tables  there  was  a 
very  wide  fluctuation  in  exchange ;  market  prices  rose  steadily  in  most 
commodities,  steamship  lines  were  disorganized  and  reorganized,  and 
freight  and  insurance  rates  rose  and  fell  with  the  changing  conditions. 


Items. 

1904 

1908 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

IMPORTS. 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

In  1 , 000 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

In  1,000 

General  imports: 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

florins. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

118,798 

166, 182 

301,173 

263,380 

261,210 

288,836 

311,755 

364, 671 

423,677 

Outer  .Possessions . 

65,564 

77, 362 

136, 730 

120, 809 

112,945 

115,888 

155,264 

165,744 

215,352 

Government  imports: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

7,607 

6,219 

24, 491 

25, 152 

15,577 

15,062 

18,926 

27,360 

97, 788 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,993 

1,447 

2,530 

3,333 

2,183 

1,457 

1,435 

1,010 

3,904 

Total  merchandise. . . . 

193,962 

251.210 

464,924 

412,674 

391,915 

421,243 

487,380 

558, 785 

740, 721 

Specie . 

16, 886 

29, 348 

28,417 

16, 779 

7,488 

25,009 

9,305 

9,019 

52,512 

Grand  total . 

207,848 

280, 558 

493,341 

429, 453 

399, 403 

446,252 

496, 685 

567,804 

793,233 

EXPORTS. 

General  exports: 

• 

Java  and  Madoera . 

172, 120 

310,887 

317,341 

335,682 

432,946 

511,290 

457, 536 

353, 469 

1,413,305 

Outer  Possessions . 

99, 961 

141,936 

303, 163 

364,998 

325, 258 

345,367 

328, 574 

322, 431 

748, 810 

Government  exports: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

20, 542 

16, 857 

34,365 

19,275 

6,938 

3,494 

1,213 

3, 711 

5,220 

Outer  Possessions . 

2 

22,866 

19, 161 

4,930 

7, 663 

457 

5 

Total  merchandise. . . . 

292,625 

469,680 

677, 735 

679,116 

770,072 

867,814 

i 87  y  / 80 

679.611 

2,167,340 

Specie..  v . 

2,982 

1,034 

6,211 

5,539 

788 

343 

5,449 

233 

131 

Grand  total . 

295, 607 

470,  714 

683, 946 

684, 655 

770, 860 

868, 157 

793, 229 

679, 844 

2, 167, 471 

A  recapitulation  of  the  above  table  shows  the  following  grand 
totals  of  exports  and  imports  for  the  years  given : 


,  Year. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Total. 

Specie. 

Grand  total. 

1904 . 

In  1,000 
florins. 
292, 625 

In  1,000 
florins. 
193, 962 

In  1,000 
florins. 
486, 587 

In  1,000 
florins. 

16, 868 

In  1,000 
florins. 
503, 455 
751, 272 

1908 . 

469,'  680 

25l' 210 

720, 890 

30, 382 

1913 . 

677,  735 
679, 116 
770, 072 
867, 814 

464'  924 

1, 142'  659 

34, 628 

1, 177;  287 

1914 . 

412'  674 

l'  091'  790 
1, 161, 987 
1, 289, 057 
1, 275, 160 

22, 318 

i;  m;  108 

1915 . 

39l'  915 

8;  276 

1, 170, 263 
1, 314, 409 
1, 289, 914 

1916 . 

42 1'  243 

25, 352 
14, 754 
9,252 

1917 . 

787'  780 

487'  380 

1918 . 

679' 611 

558,  785 

1, 238;  396 
2, 908, 061 

I',  247;  648 
2, 960, 704 

1919 . 

2, 167'  340 

740  721 

52;  643 

19878°— 23 - 4 


36 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


*  The  following  table  shows  the  values  of  imports  for  the  whole 
colony  during  the  years  1913  to  1919,  inclusive  (with  the  exception 
of  gold  and  silver  imports),  giving  also  the  countries  of  origin  of 
shipments : 


Countries  of  origin. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

In  1,000 
florins. 
145, 259 

In  1,000 
florins. 
124, 070 

In  1,000 
florins. 
99, 902 

In  1,000 
florins. 
90,771 
84, 651 

In  1,000 
florins. 
47,947 
70,807 

In  1,000 
florins. 
11,355 

In  1,000 
florins. 
83,359 

Great  Britain . 

76,571 
28, 776 
3, 432 

70, 311 
21,759 

79',  922 
4,302 
1,930 

78, 630 
477 

90,'  860 
957 

Germany . 

842 

361 

France . 

2, 665 

2,686 

2, 670 

1,820 

4,830 

Belgium . 

6,198 

4,035 
5, 789 

170 

15 

13 

6 

22 

Italv . . 

4,359 

6, 363 

5,219 

3,501 

1, 197 

1,036 

Austria . 

687 

469 

85 

53 

21 

22 

Switzerland . 

1, 063 

1,255 

1,546 

1,506 

889 

1,163 

1,640 

Spain . 

98 

33 

246 

30 

47 

11 

113 

Portugal . 

77 

72 

57 

37 

16 

34 

53 

Denmark . 

36 

81 

184 

201 

174 

489 

432 

Norway . 

145 

14 

164 

88 

101 

198 

541 

Sweden . 

602 

353 

1,481 

1,852 

1, 196 

628 

2, 181 

Russia  . 

1 

839 

»  10 

1  4 

1  3 

1  32 

Gibraltar  and  Malta . 

}  11 

/  2 

2 

6 

23 

Other  Europe . 

5 

5 

{  1 

Canada  . 

8 

36 

25 

456 

United  States . 

9,033 

9, 693 

15, 058 

30, 801 

60,592 

62,440 

1 

130, 487 

Turkey . 

2 

6 

80 

Egypt . 

162 

844 

185 

150 

403 

487 

1,407 

Arabia . 

28 

22 

2 

5 

6 

Persia . 

91 

364 

654 

3, 091 

British  India . 

22, 746 
13, 455 

15,153 

16, 235 

27, 136 

30, 923 
17, 744 
284 

32, 791 
21, 682 

16;  205 
14, 468 

Penang . 

13;  526 

13;  266 
216 

14, 189 

Malacca . . 

'356 

'320 

'  192 

'291 

399 

Singapore . 

67,847 

58, 923 

66, 087 

76,  507 
2,912 

119, 187 

134, 113 
4,704 

132, 191 
9,607 
2, 956 

Siam . 

4, 184 

2;  979 

4,710 
19, 028 

4',  413 

French  Indo-China . 

15',  560 

14,663 
6, 320 

9, 565 

15;  336 
10, 307 

10;  051 

Hongkong . 

7, 451 

9;  093 

8, 568 

15;  846 

20',  351 

China  . 

9, 231 

9', 403 

8;  165 

5;  667 
1,356 

4;  982 

4  501 

5,053 

815 

Dairen,  Chosen,  and  Vladivostok . 

'307 

'298 

2,117 

1,094 

1,324 

Japan,  including  Formosa . 

6, 769 
206 

6,591 

12, 810 

27, 238 

54,879 

938 

114,580 

77,075 

1,359 

Philippines . 

108 

106 

'330 

L  619 

British  Borneo  2 . 

127 

374 

965 

436 

588 

'415 

1,156 

Portuguese  Timor . 

513 

677 

1,082 

915 

676 

269 

602 

Cocos  and  Christmas  Islands . 

15 

30 

33 

29 

14 

Australia 3 . 

10, 573 

10, 291 

5, 340 

7,276 

51 

11, 705 

21,487 

31,745 

123 

British  South  Africa . 

107 

8 

'139 

All*  other . 

803 

1,088 

982 

851 

2,821 

6,144 

2,441 

Total . 

436, 683 

383, 150 

372, 318 

402, 795 

464,  764 

528, 955 

638,056 

i  Via  Vladivostok. 

*  Including  Sarawak  and  British  North  Borneo. 

*  Including  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Australian  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  ut  not  New 
Guinea  nor  the  Cocos  and  Christmas  Islands. 


In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  values  of  exports  for  the 
whole  colony  during  the  years  1913  to  1919,  inclusive  (with  the 
exception  of  gold  and  silver  exports),  giving  also  the  countries  of 
destination : 


INTRODUCTION 


37 


Countries  of  destination. 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


Netherlands . 

In  1,000 
florins. 
172, 616 
23, 934 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

14',  307 

France/. . 

26,  715 

Belgium . 

3, 103 

Italy . 

2, 523 

Austria . 

4,261 

Switzerland . 

8 

Spain . 

155 

Portugal . 

21 

Denmark . 

889 

Norway . 

7 

Sweden . 

27 

Russia . 

1,739 

Gibraltar  and  Malta . 

|  16,181 

Other  Europe . 

Canada _ " . 

785 

United  States . 

13, 331 

Turkey . 

95 

Egypt"  ( including  Suez  for  orders  and 
Port  Said  for  orders) . 

6, 478 

Arabia . 

308 

Persia . 

166 

British  India,  including  Pondicherry . 
Penang . . 

88,924 
19, 034 

Malacca . 

2, 097 

Singapore . 

109'  671 

Siam : . 

2, 284 

French  Indo-China . 

1,115 

Hongkong . 

34, 193 

China . . . 

17'  699 

Dairen,  Chosen,  and  Vladivostok . 

Japan,  including  Formosa . 

35,  812 

Philippines _ / . 

806 

Britisfi  Borneo 1  2 . 

216 

Portuguese  Timor . 

252 

Cocos  and  Christmas  Islands . 

19 

Australia  3 . 

12, 847 

British  South  Africa . 

17 

All  other . 

1,570 

In  1,000 
florins. 
149, 305 
106, 093 
6, 647 
20, 290 
1,751 
2,922 
1,085 


29 

8 

587 

47 

4 

1,171 

21,293 

152 

16,304 

69 

18, 136 
54 
2 

67, 402 
18, 693 
5,478 
106, 154 
3,036 
1,434 
23,636 
18, 500 


19, 179 
1,612 
368 
159 
11 

20, 159 
2, 215 
1, 796 


In  1,000 
florins. 
195, 210 
92, 816 
6 

23,728 


2, 837 


In  1,000 
florins. 
157, 798 
167, 932 
3 

22,552 


3,493 


In  1,000 
florins. 
19, 730 
85,274 


8,523 


290 


In  1,000 
florins. 
3, 358 
38,325 


7,912 

1,549 


In  1,000 
florins. 
351, 037 
235,809 
10, 147 
63, 452 
20,350 
12,288 


7 
46 
17 

434 

8 
4 

174 

8, 157 

207 

40,002 


1,115 
3,841 
1,081 
i  10, 770 
f  2,283 


1,186 
97, 879 


6, 996 


i  7, 898 


1,584 
2, 764 
200, 080 


2, 165 


1, 436 
3,315 
2,345 
1  271 


1,585 
7, 419 
110,886 


3,080 
6, 593 


18,657 
54, 552 
20,084 
4,660 
11, 125 
9, 291 
6, 840 
190, 926 
10,319 


26,079 

129 


93, 839 
13, 269 
4,117 
119,044 
4,523 
2,912 
44, 740 
17, 887 
4,972 
15,623 
1, 055 
363 
128 
9 

27,694 
2,567 

15, 701 


22,483 

41 


84,072 
14, 839 
4,906 
126, 896 
4, 503 
2,024 
32, 675 
13, 063 
2, 135 
18, 107 
1,872 
364 
131 
6 

16, 551 
37,996 
1,645 


25,298 


68, 530 
18, 707 
7, 127 
161,484 

7.701 

2.701 
37, 085 
22,909 

1, 789 
31, 357 
1, 889 
562 
96 
1 

23,427 
22, 160 
10,587 


18,046 


22 
61,837 
13, 499 
7,079 
164,028 
3,333 
3,042 
51,091 
38,496 
1,678 
77, 812 
2,270 
366 
61 


27, 633 
12,378 
9, 195 


109, 947 
23 

190, 165 
23, 515 
10, 771 
321, 460 
6,493 
3,920 
125, 625 
30, 636 
4,148 
180, 875 
10, 924 
428 
308 


82, 379 
5, 887 
4, 598 


Total 


614, 205 


635, 781 


758, 204 


854, 242 


776,553 


672,433 


2,141,313 


1  Via  Vladivostok. 

2  Including  Sarawak  and  British  North  Borneo. 

3  Including  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Australian  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  not  New 
Guinea  nor  the  Cocos  and  Christmas  Islands. 

STATISTICS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVE  VALUES. 

The  statistics  covering  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  are  issued  annually  in  four  volumes,  as  follows  (“  deel  ” 
being  the  Dutch  for  the  word  u  part  ”)  : 

Deel  I  contains  the  imports  and  exports  by  countries. 

Deel  TL-a  gives  the  imports  and  exports  for  the  islands  of  Java 
and  Madoera  by  articles,  and  under  each  heading  the  countries  of 
destination  are  given  with  the  value  of  the  shipments  to  each  country. 
In  many  cases,  especially  since  1914,  the  quantities  also  are  given 
and  the  unit  of  valuation  placed  by  the  import  and  export  division 
of  the  Department  of  Finance.  In  each  case  the  ports  of  export  are 
also  given,  with  the  quantities  from  each  port.  These  latter  figures 
are  not  totaled  and  often  do  not  include  all  the  exports.  This  volume 
also  contains  a  recapitulation  of  the  imports  and  exports  in  separate 
lists;  the  imports  and  exports  for  the  account  of  the  Government; 
the  movements  of  gold  and  silver,  both  for  Government  and  private 
account;  a  list  showing  the  unit  values  placed  on  all  commodities  by 
the  Government ;  the  rate  of  the  import  and  export  duties  and  amount 
of  income  from  each  item  during  the  year  under  review;  and  a  list 
showing  the  classifications  and  the  units  in  which  they  are  listed. 


38 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Deel  II-5  covers  the  same  information  for  Outer  Possessions. 

Deel  III  gives  the  imports  and  exports  by  residencies  (main  politi¬ 
cal  divisions). 

System  of  valvxition  of  imports  and  exports. — Invoice  values  are 
not  used  in  making  up  these  statistics,  but  unit  values  are  arbitrarily 
fixed  by  the  import  and  export  division,  and  in  doing  so  an  attempt 
is  made  to  place  them  at  a  fair  average  price  for  the  year.  It  would 
be  very  dangerous,  however,  to  take  these  valuations  and  the  result¬ 
ant  totals  seriously.  'Quantity  figures  are  used  in  this  report  when 
available. 

Approximate  dates  of  publication. — Deel  II-&,  covering  imports 
and  exports  for  J ava  and  Madoera,  is  generally  ready  for  the  public 
in  April  of  the  succeeding  year,  but’  Deel  II-6,  covering  those  of  the 
“  Butenbezittingen,”  or  Outer  Possessions,  is  not  ready  until  Novem¬ 
ber,  after  which  Deels  I  and  III  are  given  out. 

Monthly  reports. — Partial  returns  of  imports  and  exports  of  the 
various  residencies  of  Java  and  Madoera  are  issued  as  a  supplement 
of  the  Javasche  Courant,  the  official  organ  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  Government,  generally  within  three  or  four  months  of  the 
close  of  the  period.  These  are  understood  to  be  tentative  figures,  and 
the  sum  of  the  12  months  as  issued  is  seldom  the  same  as  the  annual 
returns.  For  the  Outer  Possessions  there  is  a  monthly  report  of  im¬ 
ports  and  exports  for  each  of  the  residencies,  issued  as  a  supplement 
to  the  Korteberichten  voor  Landbouw,  Nijverheid  en  Handel.  These 
publications  are  interesting  as  showing  trends  of  trade,  but  are  not 
exact,  and  local  merchants  do  not  place  much  dependence  on  the  fig¬ 
ures  contained  therein. 

The  Korteberichten  voor  Landbouw,  Nijverheid  en  Handel  con¬ 
tains  extracts  from  the  market  reports  of  the  various  Handelsvereeni- 
gingen  (merchants’  associations),  which,  coming  through  an  official 
publication,  are  particularly  valuable  as  a  summary.  Other  valuable 
trade  and  production  data  are  also  published  in  this  review,  which 
constitutes  a  guide  to  business  men  watching  developments  from 
abroad. 

The  exports  for  1913  show  a  producing  capacity,  on  a  per  capita 
basis,  of  13.01  florins  ($5.23  at  $0,402  mint  par),  and  in  1919,  a  very 
abnormal  year,  of  45.36  florins  ($18.23). 

This  colony  in  1913  was  the  sixth  largest  importer  of  cotton  tex¬ 
tiles.  Its  railroads,  its  coal  and  tin  and  other  mines,  its  thousands 
of  plantations,  its  187  sugar  mills  and  other  industries,  and  its  re¬ 
quirements  for  the  native  population  place  it  in  a  very  important 
position  as  a  consumer  of  machinery,  iron  and  steel,  hardware,  heavy 
chemicals,  paper,  crockery,  and  household  supplies  and  many  other 
western  manufactures. 

The  imports  for  1913  show  a  purchasing  capacity,  on  a  per  capita 
basis,  of  9.25  florins  ($3.72  at  $0,402  mint  par),  and  in  1919,  a  very 
abnormal  year,  of  13.52  florins  ($5.44).  The  total  foreign  trade 
figures  for  these  years  (exclusive  of  specie  and  Government  trans¬ 
actions),  on  a  per  capita  basis,  were  22.26  florins  ($8.95)  and  58.88 
florins  ($23.67),  respectively. 


INTRODUCTION. 


39 


BRITISH  MALAYA. 

POSITION  AND  AREA. 

The  British  possessions  in  Malaya  consist  of  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments,  the  Federated  Malay  States,  the  Non-Federated  Malay  States, 
British  North  Borneo,  Brunei,  and  Sarawak.  These  possessions, 
exclusive  of  the  Cocos  or  Keeling  Islands  and  Christmas  Island,  lie 
between  6°  45'  and  1°  north  of  the  Equator  and  between  99°  38'  and 
119°  20'  east  longitude,  and  include  an  area  of  approximately 
130,000  square  miles,  about  53,000  miles  of  which  are  on  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND. 

When  Malacca  was  visited  by  Albuquerque  in  1511  “it  was  a 
place  of  great  repute  as  a  harbor  and  mart.”  The  Portuguese  re¬ 
mained  in  possession  until  1641,  when  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Dutch,  who  were  succeeded  by  the  British  in  1795.  The  title  of  the 
British  to  this  ancient  trade  center  was  finally  fixed  by  the  treaty 
with  Holland,  1824.  Since  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Georgetown, 
on  the  island  of  Penang,  Malacca  has  taken  a  minor  position  in  the 
trade  of  the  peninsula. 

Penang  (Georgetown)  was  established  under  the  control  of  the 
East  Indian  Co.  by  Mr.  Francis  Light  in  1786  and  was  the  seat  of 
the  operations  of  that  company  in  Malaysia. 

Singapore  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  a  preliminary  treaty  on 
January  30,  1819,  and  by  a  more  formal  document  on  February  6  of 
the  same  year,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles  acting  on  behalf  of  the 
“  Honourable  East  Indian  Company.”  It  is  recorded  that  there 
were  about  150  Malays  resident  there  on  the  date  of  the  arrival  of 
the  Raffles  expedition  and  that  by  July  there  was  a  population  of 
5,000,  mostly  Chinese.  The  trade  of  Singapore  and  Penang  grew 
rapidly,  but  most  largely  in  the  products  of  the  Dutch  territories, 
as  the  resources  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  were  hardly  suspected  at 
that  time. 

In  1825  Penang,  Singapore,  and  Malacca  became  a  presidency  of 
India.  In  1829  they  were  placed  under  the  government  of  Bengal, 
and  in  1851  they  passed  to  the  Supreme  Government  of  India  and  so 
remained  until  they  became  a  Crown  colony  in  1867. 

On  November  2,  1875,  Mr.  James  W.  Birch,  resident  of  the  State 
of  Perak,  was  assassinated  by  the  Malays,  and  as  a  result  a  punitive 
expedition  was  sent  into  the  interior  and  a  government  formed  under 
which  life  and  property  were  secure.  The  rich  tin  deposits  were 
developed  as  producers,  the  taxes  on  output  providing  funds  for 
building  roads  and  railroads,  and  the  later  growth  of  the  rubber 
industry  has  provided  a  large  increase  in  the  revenues. 

In  1896  the  federation  of  the  States  of  Perak,  Selangor,  Negri 
Sembilan,  and  Pahang  was  formed,  and  Kuala  Lumpur,  in  the  State 
of  Selangor,  was  made  the  capital. 

The  relations  between  Johore  and  Great  Britain  were  first  defined 
in  a  treaty  in  1885,  and  in  1914  the  Sultan  agreed  to  accept  and  act 
upon  the  advice  of  a  British  adviser. 

An  agreement  defining  the  relations  between  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment  and  the  State  of  Trengganoe  was  signed  on  April  22,  1910, 


40 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


and  this  was  supplanted  in  1919  by  a  clause  providing  for  the  accept¬ 
ance  of  a  British  adviser  on  similar  terms  to  those  of  Johore. 

The  States  of  Kelantan,  Kedah,  and  Perlis  came  under  the  suze¬ 
rainty  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Anglo-Siamese  Treaty  of  1909. 

The  relations  between  the  British  Government  and  Brunei,  in 
Borneo,  are  fixed  by  treaty  signed  on  January  2,  1906,  and  are 
similar  to  those  defining  the  status  of  the  Federated  Malay  States. 

POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

The  Straits  Settlements  consist  of  the  Crown  colonies  of  Singapore, 
Malacca,  the  Dindings,  Penang,  and  Province  Wellesley,  all  on  the 
Malay  Peninsula;  Labuan,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Brunei  in 
Borneo ;  and  the  Cocos  or  Keeling  Islands  and  the  Christmas  Island, 
lying  south  of  the  Netherlands  Indies.  The  area  is  about  1,550 
square  miles,  and  the  population,  according  to  the  latest  available 
estimate,  820,871. 

The  Federated  Malay  States  include  the  native  States  of  Perak, 
Selangor,  and  Negri  Sembilan,  lying  to  the  west  of  the  mountain 
range  which  divides  the  peninsula  into  two  unequal  portions,  and  the 
native  State  of  Pahang,  lying  to  the  east.  The  area  included  in  this 
political  division  is  approximately  27,500  square  miles,  the  latest 
available  estimate  of  the  population  being  1,037,000. 

The  Non-Federated  Malay  States  include  the  native  States  of 
Johore,  on  the  south  end  of  the  peninsula ;  Trengganoe  and  Kelantan, 
lying  to  the  east  of  the  dividing  range  of  mountains  and  north  of  the 
State  of  Pahang;  and  Kedah  and  Perlis,  lying  to  the  west  of  the 
mountains  and  between  Perak  and  Province  Wellesley  on  the  south, 
with  Siam  on  the  north  and  east.  These  States  have  an  area  of  ap¬ 
proximately  23,500  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  900,000. 

British  North  Borneo  lies  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  island 
of  Borneo  and  has  an  area  of  approximately  31,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  estimated  at  208,000. 

The  State  of  Sarawak  lies  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island  of 
Borneo  and  to  the  west  of  British  North  Borneo.  It  has  an  area  of 
approximately  42,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  estimated  at 
600,000. 

Brunei  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  State  of  Sarawak  and  on 
the  north  by  the  China  Sea.  It  has  an  area  of  approximately  4,000 
square  miles  and  a  population  estimated  at  32,000. 

GOVERNMENT. 

The  Straits  Settlements  are  a  Crown  colony  of  the  British  Empire 
and  are  governed  by  a  Governor  General,  who  is  also  the  High  Com¬ 
missioner  to  the  Federated  and  Non-Federated  Malay  States  and  to 
Brunei.  The  Federated  Malay  States  are  a  federation  of  the  four 
States  enumerated  above  for  the  purpose  of  administration  and 
economic  development.  Each  State  is  under  the  nominal  rule  of  a 
native  sultan,  and  the  British  influence  is  exercised  through  a  resi¬ 
dent,  who  nominally  has  advisory  powers  only.  The  Non-Federated 
Malay  States  are  also  each  ruled  by  a  native  sultan,  and  the  British 
influence  is  exercised  through  British  advisers. 

British  North  Borneo  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  chartered  corn- 
pan}^  called  the  British  North  Borneo  Co.,  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  November  1, 1881. 


INTRODUCTION*. 


41 


The  territory  of  Sarawak  is  ruled  over  by  Rajah  H.  H.  Charles 
Vyner  Brooke,  an  Englishman,  and  is  under  the  protection  of  Great 
Britain.  Brunei  has  a  government  similar  in  most  respects  to  that 
of  the  Non-Federated  Malay  States  on  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

The  Malay  Peninsula  lies  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  continent 
of  Asia,  between  the  China  Sea  on  the  east  and  the  Strait  of  Malacca 
on  the  west.  The  principal  ports  of  entry  are  Singapore,  located 
on  an  island  off  the  extreme  southern  point  of  the  peninsula,  and 
Penang,  lying  off  the  west  coast  near  the  northern  part  of  the  British 
possessions. 

Port  Swettenham,  in  the  State  of  Selangor,  has  been  reclaimed 
from  marshland  and  can  accommodate  deep-sea  shipping.  There  is 
a  considerable  amount  of  rubber  exported  from  this  port. 

The  secondary  commercial  towns  are  Ipoh,  in  the  State  of  Perak; 
Kuala  Lumpur,  in  Selangor,  the  capital  of  the  Federated  Malay 
States  and  the  principal  town;  and  Seremban,  in  the  State  of  Negri 
Sembilan. 

Sandakan  is  the  port  of  entry  and  export  for  British  North  Borneo, 
and  vessels  of  considerable  draft  can  be  accommodated  there.  The 
business  of  the  State  of  Brunei  is  done  through  Labuan,  one  of  the 
Straits  Settlement's  lying  off  its  coast,  and  is  routed  principally 
through  Singapore. 

The  shipping  of  Sarawak  is  centered  at  Kuching,  and  most  of  the 
business  passes  through  Singapore. 

PORTS  OF  SINGAPORE  AND  PENANG. 

All  shipping  from  Europe  to  far  eastern  ports  must  call  at  Singa¬ 
pore,  as  it  lies  directly  on  the  main  oriental  route.  Most  of  the 
shipping  companies  operating  between  Europe  and  the  Netherlands 
Indies  include  Singapore  as  a  port  of  call. 

A  very  large  part  of  the  trade  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  reaches 
the  world’s  markets  through  Singapore  and  Penang.  The  British 
merchants  of  those  ports  have  guided  the  develo  pment  of  a  Chinese 
business  organization  that  penetrates  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
Netherlands  Indies,  and  the  markets  provided  by  these  British  mer¬ 
chants  have  been  consolidated  through  London  so  that  many  of  the 
products  pass  by  Soerabaya,  Batavia,  and  Semarang,  the  principal 
Dutch  market  cities,  through  the  Singapore  Chinese  organization, 
and  are  exported  by  the  British  exporting  houses.  In  return  they 
supply  many  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  ports  with  manufactures  of 
British  factories. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distances  in  nautical  miles  from 
Singapore  and  Penang  to  foreign  ports: 


Ports. 

Singa¬ 

pore. 

Penang. 

New  York  via  Panama . .% . 

MiUs. 
12,522 
10, 154 

Miles. 
12,910 
9  830 

New  York  via  Suez . 

New  Orleans  via  Panama . 

11,935 

11,595 

7,330 

12, 315 

New  Orleans  via  Suez . . . 

ll'  305 

San  Francisco . 

7,718 

7,415 

7,990 

Port  Townsend . 

7,027 

8,280 

London . 

42 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  Malay  Peninsula  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a  range 
of  mountains  lying  north  and  south,  with  a  spur  projecting  eastward 
at  right'  angles  to  the  main  range.  These  mountains  rise  from  the 
plains  in  southern  Siam  and  flatten  out  in  the  southern  part  of 
Regri  Sembilan  to  low  hills,  which  constitute  a  large  part  of  the 
State  of  Johore.  The  highest  peak  is  that  of  Gunong  Tehan,  7,200 
feet.  To  the  west  these  mountains  rise  abruptly  from  the  plains 
and  valleys  of  the  Perak,  Selangor,  and  other  rivers,  which  produce 
a  large  part  of  the  world’s  supply  of  tin  and  rubber,  and  toward 
the  east  slope  in  undulating  hill  land  toward  the  China  Sea.  The 
Perak  River,  on  the  west,  carries  a  large  amount  of  water  and  is 
navigable  for  40  miles  for  steamers  of  300  to  400  tons  burden.  The 
Selangor  River  and  the  other  rivers  farther  south  are  short,  with 
little  fall,  and  are  navigable  short  distances  for  light  craft. 

To  the  east  of  the  mountains  are  some  large  rivers,  that  provide 
transportation  for  the  wide  jungle  areas.  The  principal  ones  are  the 
Kelantan,  the  Trengganoe,  and  the  Pahang,  the  Kuantan  and  Rympin 
being  also  important. 

On  the  south,  in  the  State  of  Johore,  the  Maur  and  Batu  Pahat 
Rivers,  running  westward;  the  Johore  River,  running  southward 
into  the  Strait  of  Malacca ;  and  the  Sedili,  running  eastward  into  the 
China  Sea,  are  all  highways  on  which  jungle  products  reach  the 
markets. 

The  British  possessions  in  Borneo  are  on  the  north  of  the  water¬ 
shed  lying  northeast  and  southwest.  The  Redjang,  Loepar,  and 
Baram  Rivers,  in  Sarawak,  are  navigable  for  considerable  distances, 
but  the  rivers  to  the  north  and  east  have  a  comparatively  small 
volume  of  water  and  are  navigable  only  for  small  boats  for  short 
distances. 

CLIMATE. 

The  temperature  and  rainfall  in  British  Malaya  are  given  in  the 
Singapore  and  Straits  Directory  as  follows: 


Places 

Period. 

Fahrenheit. 

Total 

rainfall. 

Absolute 

maximum. 

Absolute 

minimum. 

Mean. 

Singapore . 

1919 

1919 

1919 

1919 

1918 

1919 

1918 

Degrees. 

93.5 

95.0 

94.0 

92.0 

97.0 

Degrees. 

71.5 

69.0 

70.0 

70.0 

58.0 

Degrees. 

81.7 

81.7 

80.5 

82.0 

1  70. 0 

Inches. 

92.6 
82.1 

84.7 
108.8 

*  192.  0 
*  80.  8 

}■  *88.6 
120.0 

Penang . 

Malacca . 

Labuan . 

Perak . 

Selangor . 

At  Seremban,  in  Negri  Sembilan . 

% 

/  4  88.  5 

\  4  68.  5 

British  North  Borneo . 

93.0 

57.0 

1  Approximate. 

*  At  Tapah. 

*  Kuala  Lumpur. 

4  Average  15  years,  mean  maximum  and  minimum. 

Average  10  years. 

The  figures  for  Singapore,  Penang,  Malacca,  and  Labuan  are  repre¬ 
sentative  of  those  colonies.  Perak  and  Selangor  are  large  States. 


INTRODUCTION. 


43 


The  town  of  Tapah  is  in  the  foothill  region  and  within  a  few  miles  of 
very  high  mountains.  The  rainfall  is  therefore  higher  than  in  the 
Kinta  Valley  and  some  other  parts  of  the  State,  although  there  are 
points  in  the  mountains  where  the  rainfall  is  still  higher  than  that 
at  Tapah.  The  figures  submitted  are  somewhat  indicative  of  the 
range  of  temperature  and  rainfall,  but  local  conditions  cause  a  wide 
variation. 

On  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
there  is  no  distinctly  dry  season.  The  wettest  months  are  October, 
November,  and  December,  and  the  driest  are  June,  July  and  August. 

NATURAL  RESOURCES. 

The  principal  products  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  are  rubber,  tin, 
and  copra.  Besides  these  there  is  a  small  production  of  pineapples, 
tapioca,  gambier,  coffee,  nutmegs  and  other  spices,  oil-producing 
seeds  and  leaves,  gums,  gutta-percha  and  other  guttas,  rattans  and 
other  forest  products,  hides,  china  clay  (kaolin),  gold,  and  coal. 
The  production  of  rice  and  other  native  food  products  is  not  general 
throughout  the  district,  although  considerable  quantities  of  rice  are 
raised  in  the  Krian  district  of  Perak  and  in  Negri  Sembilan. 

There  is  some  development  of  water  power,  which  is  being  used 
almost  exclusively  in  the  tin  mines,  and  a  survey  is  being  made  of  the 
undeveloped  areas. 

Aside  from  rubber  and  tin  and  the  forest  products  of  British 
Borneo,  British  Malaya  is  not  important  as  a  producer  of  raw  ma¬ 
terials,  and  its  small  population  limits  its  purchasing  capacity. 
Singapore  and  Penang  are  very  important  ports,  mainly  in  so  far  as 
they  deal  in  the  products  of  the  surrounding  countries.  In  1913 
these  two  ports  handled  129,000,000  florins  of  the  exports  of  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  or  21  per  cent  of  the  total,  and  in  1919, 
345,000,000  florins,  or  16  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  the  former  year 
the  United  States  took  only  2  per  cent  of  the  total  and  in  the  latter 
year  9  per  cent,  a  considerable  part  of  which  was  diverted  to  direct 
trade  from  American  trade  with  Singapore. 

Imports  and  exports  of  the  Straits  Settlements  for  1913,  the  last 
full  pre-war  year,  and  for  succeeding  years  are  shown  in  Straits 
dollars  in  the  following  tables  (1  Straits  dollar =$0,567  United 
States  currency  at  mint  par)  : 

IMPORTS. 


Items. 

1913 

19-14 

1915 

1916 

Live  animals,  food,  drinks,  and  narcotics . 

Raw  materials . 

Manufactured  and  partly  manufactured  goods.. 
Coin  and  bullion . 

172,681,941 
193, 031, 124 
93, 360, 317 
25,  079, 239 

152,  249, 752 
156, 36-1, 785 
67,  293, 027 
15, 465,  559 

164, 238, 549 
191,701,952 
70,  802, 689 
10, 717,  567 

188, 955, 905 
246, 667, 290 
94, 565, 726 

Total  value . 

484, 152, 621 

391, 373, 123 

437, 460, 757 

530, 188, 921 

Items. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Live  animals,  food,  drinks,  and  narcotics . 

Raw  materials . 

Manufactured  and  partly  manufactured  goods.. 
Coin  and  bullion . . . 

237,  9§4, 803 
290, 926,  201 
105, 295, 812 

247, 024, 056 
324, 221, 904 
128, 335, 312 

299, 148, 780 
383, 714, 623 
145, 685, 960 
56, 156, 394 

373, 533, 234 
407, 232, 968 
283, 946, 122 
205, 499, 855 

Total  value . 

634, 176, 816 

699, 581, 272 

884,705,757 

1, 270, 212, 179 

44 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


EXPORTS. 


Items. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Live  animals,  food,  drinks,  and  narcotics . 

Raw  materials . 

Manufactured  and  partly  manufactured  goods. . 
Coin  and  bullion . ; . . . 

132, 908, 249 
198, 851, 404 
41,183, 615 
15, 986, 437 

117,634, 888 
172, 880, 770 
35, 473, 228 
8, 137, 134 

134, 721,  207 
215, 285, 424 
48, 525, 647 
5, 395, 544 

152,148,711 
278, 482, 436 
57,370,926 

Total  value . 

388, 929,  705 

334, 126, 020 

403,927, 822 

488,002,073 

Items. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Live  animals,  food,  drinks,  and  narcotics . 

Raw  materials . 

Manufactured  and  partly  manufactured  goods.. 
Coin  and  bullion . 

183,  829, 044 
372, 175, 445 
63, 769, 104 

195, 947,  401 
346, 639, 822 
73, 8S8, 017 

228, 509, 322 
515, 242, 193 
107,  548, 405 
23, 466, 310 

241, 207, 179 
507, 681, 183 
129, 995, 122 
145, 162, 094 

Total  value . 

619, 773, 593 

616, 475, 240 

874, 766, 230 

1,024,045,578 

PEOPLE  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  native  population  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  is  made  up  of  a  few  Sakais  and  the  balance  of  Malays. 
The  Sakais  are  of  a  lower  order  than  the  Malays,  being  physically 
and  culturally  but  little  above  the  Negrito  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
They  are  nomadic  tree  dwellers  and  live  on  forest  products  and  by 
the  chase,  sometimes  cultivating  small  clearings  in  the  jungle,  which 
are  abandoned  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested. 

The  Malays  of  Negri  Sembilan  claim  descent  from  the  Menang- 
kabou  Malays  of  Sumatra,  and  in  some  parts  of  that  State  matri¬ 
archy  survives.  In  the  Federated  Malay  States  there  are  about  as 
many  Chinese  as  Malays,  but  in  the  northern  and  eastern  States  the 
Malays  greatly  outnumber  all  other  races.  They  are  small  farmers, 
but  do  not  take  kindly  to  plantation  work  and  are  not  satisfactory 
as  household  servants,  but  make  good  chauffeurs.  Many  of  them  are 
employed  in  the  Government  services.  In  the  less  developed  dis¬ 
tricts  they  are  the  gatherers  of  jungle  products,  carrying  on  such 
agriculture  as  is  necessary  for  their  immediate  needs. 

The  Chinese  were  resident  on  the  Malay  Peninsula  long  before 
Albuquerque  discovered  Malacca,  and  many  of  them  neither  speak 
nor  read  the  Chinese  language,  although  they  maintain  their  Chi¬ 
nese  characteristics  and  their  affiliations  with  China.  The  Chinese 
born  on  the  peninsula  of  parents  of  blood  slightly  mixed  with  Malay 
are  called  44  babas,”  and  the  full-blood  Chinese  immigrants  are  called 
44  singkehs.”  They  are  the  merchants,  handicraftsmen,  servants,  and 
mine  workers,  and  some  rubber  estates  use  Chinese  labor.  Many 
Chinese  have  attained  great  wealth,  and  some  of  them  are  very 
highly  educated  and  take  a  leading  part  in  the  local  public  affairs 
as  unofficial  members  of  governing  bodies,  as  well  as  in  philan¬ 
thropic  and  cultural  efforts. 

On  the  western  slope  of  the  peninsula  Tamil  coolies  from  British 
India  are  employed  by  estates  where  the  health  conditions  are  satis¬ 
factory  to  the  commission  controlling  the  immigration.  These 
coolies  are  recruited  in  India  by  agents  of  the  estates  and  their  fare 
paid  and  return  fare  guaranteed.  No  contract  with  a  coolie  can 
effectively  hold  him,  but  there  is  a  minimum  of  contract  breaking,  as 


INTRODUCTION. 


45 


a  gentleman’s  agreement  exists  among  the  planters  to  protect  the 
contracts  of  others.  When  British  Indian  labor  is  employed  the 
estates  are  obliged,  under  the  law,  to  provide  hospital  service  under 
the  supervision  of  a  European  doctor  and  to  comply  with  very  strict 
regulations  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  coolies.  The  men  and  women 
work  as  tappers  on  an  equal  basis,  and  as  common  laborers  the 
women  are  given  work  suited  to  their  physique,  such  as  weeding. 

British  Indians  from  Bengal  (Bengalis)  are  the  bullock-cart 
drivers  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  and  are  sometimes  employed 
as  watchmen. 

Men  from  Jaffna,  southern  India,  are  largely  employed  by  the 
railroads.  Singalese  (Ceylon  men)  are  much  in  evidence  as  mer¬ 
chants.  Parsee  merchants  do  a  large  business  in  interoriental  trade. 
The  Arabs  are  a  conspicuous  though  not  a  numerous  part  of  the  pop¬ 
ulation.  They  are  prosperous  as  money  lenders. 

There  is  a  large  Eurasian  population,  mostly  centered  in  the  cities 
and  larger  towns.  These  people  are  a  mixture  of  European  blood 
with  Malay  or  Chinese,  or  both.  They  are  the  clerks  in  the  offices 
and  constitute  an  independent  social  group,  but  are  not  received  on 
an  equal  basis  by  any  of  the  racial  groups  from  which  they  have 
sprung.  They  are  an  industrious,  useful  part  of  the  population. 

LABOR. 

The  Tamil  (British  Indian)  laborers  on  the  rubber  estates  are 
tractable  and  generally  satisfactory.  Before  the  war  they  were  paid 
about  $12  per  month  in  Straits  dollars  under  their  contracts,  but  dur¬ 
ing  the  later  years  of  the  war  they  received  an  increase,  besides  cer¬ 
tain  rice  allowances,  which  made  it  possible  to  keep  the  wage  scale 
down.  The  drop  in  the  price  of  crude  rubber,  which  brought  about 
some  restriction  of  output,  made  it  possible  to  readjust  the  nominal 
wage  schedule  and  rice  prices  on  a  pre-war  basis.  The  Tamils  took 
the  wage  reduction  without  serious  protest. 

The  Chinese  coolies  in  the  tin  mines  are  employed  on  a  task  basis 
whenever  possible  and  on  this  basis  are  very  satisfactory  laborers. 
Many  of  the  mines  owned  by  the  Chinese  are  operated  on  a  share 
basis.  Before  the  war  the  Chinese  mine  coolies  received  about  55 
cents  (Straits  currency)  per  day  when  working  on  a  day  basis  in 
the  lowlands,  and,  although  wages  went  to  nearly  double  this  amount 
during  the  war,  they  are  now  back  to  the  pre-war  level. 


•vHfc-j  h)‘.  * 

.  :  f  : 

,  )  . :  '  i  :  *'! 

TRANSPORTATION. 

RIVERS  AND  CANALS. 


The  rivers  of  Java  are  for  the  most  part  short  and  unnavigable, 
except  near  the  coast,  and  most  of  the  canals,  of  which  there  are 
many,  are  built  for  irrigation  purposes  and  are  not  equipped  with 
locks. 

Between  Batavia  and  Tandjoengpriok  there  is  a  barge  canal  that  is 
used  for  the  transport  of  heavy  cargo,  and  an  extension  of  this  canal 
as  far  as  Weltevreden,  the  residential  portion  of  Batavia,  is  used  for 
transportation  of  cargo  in  smaller  barges. 

The  Brantas  Biver  in  eastern  J ava,  which  has  its  source  southeast 
of  Kloet  Volcano,  carries  a  large  volume  of  water,  but  the  shoals  in 
the  upper  reaches  do  not  permit  of  navigation.  Near  its  mouth  it 
divides  into  what  is  called  the  Sidoardjo  Delta,  formed  by  two  main 
branches,  the  Porong  and  the  Kali  Mas.  The  latter  branch  flows 
into  the  sea  at  Soerabaya,  where  locks  permit  the  use  of  barges  for 
handling  heavy  cargo.  The  Bergawan  or  Solo  River,  flowing  into 
the  sea  to  the  north  of  Soerabaya,  also  carries  a  large  volume  of 
water. 

The  western  watershed  of  Sumatra  is  narrow  and  the  rivers  are 
short  and  unnavigable  except  for  short  distances  near  the  sea,  and 
then  only  for  small  boats  and  light-draft  barges.  The  eastern  water¬ 
shed  is  broad  and  there  are  many  large  rivers  navigable  for  consider¬ 
able  distances.  The  principal  ones,  from  north  to  south,  are  the 
Asahan,  the  Panai,  the  Rekan  Kanan  and  Kiri,  the  Siak,  the  Kampar, 
the  Indragiri,  the  Nioer  with  its  branches  (the  Tembesi  and  Hari), 
the  Moesi  with  its  elaborate  network  of  branches,  and  the  Toelang- 
bawang. 

Borneo  has  many  rivers,  navigable  for  long  distances.  The  Ka- 
poeas,  which  flows  into  the  China  Sea  at  Pontianak,  drains  a  large 
area  and  provides  transportation  for  a  large  part  of  the  products  of 
western  Borneo.  In  south  Borneo  the  Doesoen  River,  flowing  into 
the  Java  Sea  near  Bandjermasin,  drains  a  wide  area  and  is  the  high¬ 
way  for  the  trade  of  a  very  large  part  of  the  district.  The  Koetei 
River  in  eastern  Borneo  is  navigable  for  interisland  steamers  as  far 
as  Samarinda  and  for  smaller  boats  for  a  considerable  distance  above 
that  port.  A  large  number  of  other  rivers  of  Borneo  are  navigable 
for  small  steamers  for  short  distances. 


HARBORS. 

The  major  harbors  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  Tandjoeng¬ 
priok  (Batavia’s  harbor),  Soerabaya,  and  Semarang,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Java;  Tjilatjap,  on  the  south  coast;  Macassar,  in  Celebes; 


TRANSPORTATION. 


47 


and  Emmahaven  (Padang’s  harbor)  and  Belawan  Deli  (Medan’s 
harbor),  in  Sumatra.  An  extensive  harbor  and  coaling  station  has 
been  developed  at  Sabang,  an  island  off  the  southern  point  of  Su¬ 
matra. 

The  secondary  harbors  are  at  Cheribon  and  Banjoewangi,  on  the 
island  of  Java;  Amboina,  on  Amboina  Island  in  the  Moluccas;  at 
Menado  in  Celebes;  at  Bandjermasin  and  Pontianak  in  Borneo;  and 
at  Palembang  in  Sumatra. 

A  description  of  these  harbors  is  printed  in  the  Yearbook  of  the 
Netherlands  Indies,  1*921,  and  a  large  amount  of  supplementary  data, 
including  drawings  of  the  harbor  works  at  the  major,  secondary,  and 
minor  ports,  is  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com¬ 
mence. 

Singapore  and  Penang  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  Port  Swetten- 
ham  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  and  Sandakan  in  British  North 
Borneo  are  the  major  ports  of  British  Malaya.  The  secondary  ports 
are  Malacca  and  Labuan  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  Port  Dickson, 
Telok  Anson,  and  Port  Weld  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  Kuching 
in  Sarawak,  and  Kudat  and  Jesselton  in  British  North  Borneo. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  steamers  are  loaded  in 
the  open  roadstead. 

STATE  RAILWAYS  AND  TRAMWAYS. 

The  first  railway  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  constructed  by 
the  State  ran  from  Soerabaya  to  Pasoeroean  and  Malang.  The  sec¬ 
tion  from  Soerabaya  to  Pasoeroean,  63  kilometers  (1  kilometer =0.62 
mile),  was  opened  to  public  traffic  on  May  16,  1878.  Since  that  date 
the  length  of  State  railways  has  steadily  increased,  at  the  end  of  1919 
the  following  being  in  operation: 

In  Java:  2,509  kilometers  with  a  gauge  of  1.067  meters  (1  meters 
3.28  feet)  and  104  kilometers  with  a  gauge  of  0.60  meter. 

In  Sumatra:  On  the  West  Coast,  245  kilometers  with  a  gauge  of 
1.067  meters ;  in  South  Sumatra,  242  kilometers  with  a  gauge  of  0.60 
meter. 

In  Acheen  and  dependencies,  512  kilometers  with  a  0.75-meter 
gauge. 

Since  1906  the  State  railway  operations  have  developed  consider¬ 
ably,  as  shown  by  the  following  figures,  which  do  not  include  opera¬ 
tions  in  South  Sumatra  and  in  Acheen : 


Items. 


Cost  of  construction . florins.. 

Lines  operated  (average) . kilometers.. 

Gross  revenues . florins. . 

Working  expenses  (including  renovation,  repair  of 

extraordinary  damage,  and  written-off  capi¬ 
tal)... .  florins.. 

Net  receipts . do _ 

Staff: 

European . number. . 

Native . do _ 

Passengers . f . kilometers. . 

Tons . do _ 

Locomotives . number. . 

Carriages . do - 

Cars.... . do _ 


1906 

1914 

1917 

178, 386, 442 
2,119 
16, 508, 198 

234,  495,  886 
2,  557 
34,714,830 

275, 134,  866 
2,  836 

44,019,653 

9, 745,  895 
6, 760, 303 

19, 543, 195 
15, 171, 635 

23,478, 923 
20, 540, 730 

1,480 

6) 

.512,090, 589 
231,611,  813 
424 
975 
5,858 

2,  535 
18,  509 
1, 105,  765, 121 
489, 850, 374 
513 
1,589 
10,094 

3, 302 
21,629 
1, 455, 775, 018 
642, 291,  224 
530 
1,714 
11,038 

1  Not  completely  known. 


48 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  way  in  which  these  railways  have  prospered  is  largely  due  to 
the  change  in  the  management  which  was  effected  in  1906.  In  that 
year  the  management  was  given  to  a  special  branch  of  service  known 
as  the  Service  of  State  Railways  and  Tramways,  which  made  it'  pos¬ 
sible  to  operate  the  lines  in  a  more  effective  and  systematic  way. 

The  activities  in  behalf  of  the  State  railways  and  tramways  are 
now  divided  into  nine  branches  of  service,  as  follows:  (1)  The  ad¬ 
ministrative  service,  (2)  service  of  roads  and  works,  (3)  service  of 
traction,  simple  lines,  (4)  traffic  and  business  affairs,  (5)  tramways 
and  automobiles,  (6)  surveying,  (7)  construction,  (8)  construction 
and  bridge  building,  and  (9)  extension  and  architectural  affairs.  A 
bureau  of  supplies  is  also  a  part  of  the  organization. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  service  of  construction  and  bridge  building 
to  see  that  all  structures  which  are  built  fulfill  the  latest  require¬ 
ments,  that  they  are  controlled  according  to  the  latest  methods  of 
calculation,  and  that  they  are  built  from  materials  which  have  proved 
their  good  quality.  This  service  must  also  determine  the  various 
types  of  locomotives  to  be  used  on  certain  construction  works. 

During  1918  the  following  lines  were  being  investigated  or 
surveyed : 

In  Java : 

1.  Garoet  to  Tjikadjang. 

2.  Tramways  in  north  Cheribon. 

3.  Tramways  in  the  southern  part  of  the  division  of  Bandoeng. 

4.  Extension  of  State  tramways  in  the  Residency  of  Madioen. 

5.  Lines  in  south  Bantam. 

6.  Buitenzorg  to  Penjawoengan. 

7.  Tangerang  to  Serang. 

In  the  Outlying  Possessions : 

1.  Sibolga  via  Batang  Toroe  to  Padangsidimpoean  (Tapanoeli). 

2.  Soengailimau  to  Loeboekbasoeng  (Sumatra  West  Coast). 

3.  Macassar  to  Takalar  (Celebes). 

4.  Macassar  to  Tanete  to  Seenkang  (Celebes). 

5.  Koto  Boemi  to  Batoeradja. 

6.  Moeara  Enim  to  Lahat. 

7.  Lahat  to  Tebingtinggi  to  Kapalatjoeroep. 

In  that  year  the  following  lines  were  being  built: 

In  Java: 

1.  Bandjar  to  Parigi. 

2.  Rogodjampi  to  KalisetaiL 

3.  Krawang  to  Lemahabang. 

4.  Djatinangor  to  Tjitali. 

5.  Bandoeng  to  Kopo. 

6.  Gempolkerep  to  Ivertosono. 

7.  Toeloengagoeng  to  Trenggalek  to  Toegoe. 

8.  Parigi  to  Tjidjoelang. 

9.  The  double-track  railway  Weltevreden  to  Tjikampek. 

In  Sumatra : 

1.  Palembang  to  Lampong  district. 

2.  Coal  line  from  Moeara  Enim  to  Tandj  >eng  and  the  works  at  Kertapati. 

3.  Pajacombe  to  Limbanang. 

The  completion  of  the  Cheribon-Kroja  section  in  January,  1917, 
made  possible  a  one-day  connection  between  Batavia  and  Soerabaya, 
which  is  of  great  importance  to  business  and  industry. 

Purchases  in  America  are  made  by  a  branch  of  the  purchasing 
office  of  the  Department  of  the  Colonies  of  the  Netherlands  Govern¬ 
ment,  located  at  No.  17  Battery  Place,  New  York  City. 

Purchases  are  made  in  Batavia  nominally  through  the  Java  branch 
of  the  above-mentioned  purchasing  office  located  at  Bandoeng,  but 


TRANSPORTATION. 


49 


business  men  going  to  Batavia  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  get 
into  direct  touch  with  the  engineers  and  board  of  control  of  the 
railways. 

PRIVATELY  OWNED  RAILWAYS  AND  TRAMWAYS. 

NETHERLANDS  INDIES  RAILROAD  CO.  (N.  I.  S.). 

The  first  railroad  established  by  private  initiative  is  the  line 
Semarang-Principalities-Willem  I,  running  from  Semarang  via 
Soerakarta  to  Djokjakarta,  with  a  branch  from  Kedoengdjati  to 
Willem  I.  The  concession  for  the  construction  of  this  railway, 
granted  in  1862  to  W.  Poolman,  was  later  transferred  to  a  joint- 
stock  company,  the  Netherlands  Indies  Railroad  Co.  (Nederlandsch- 
Indische  Spoorweg  Maatschappij ) ,  the  establishing  of  which  was 
sanctioned  by  royal  decree  of  September  17,  1863,  No.  37.  The 
railroad  was  completed  May  21,  1873. 

The  Netherlands  Indies  Railroad  Co.  obtained  a  concession  in 
1864  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad  between  Batavia  and  Buiten- 
zorg.  This  line,  which  was  completed  January  31,  1873,  was  pur¬ 
chased  by  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Government  and  changed  hands 
November  1,  1913. 

The  company  extended  the  net  of  roads  by  the  construction  of 
the  following  steam  tramways  :  (a)  Djokjakarta  to  Sewoegaloer,  with 
branch  from  Ngabean  to  Poendoeng;  (6)  Djokjakarta  to  Magelang 
to  Willem  I,  with  branch  from  Setjang  to  Parakan;  ( c )  Goendik  to 
Soerabaya,  with  branches;  (d)  Soerabaya  to  Bojolali  (acquired  by 
purchase) ;  ( e )  Soerabaya  to  Wonogiri  to  Kakap. 

In  1918  it  opened  automobile  services  from  Bringin  and  Toentang 
to  Salatiga  and  from  Parakan  to  Wonosobo  and  Ngadirodjo. 

The  table  following  gives  data  regarding  the  results  of  the  working 
of  the  Semarang-Principalities  Railway  from  1914  to  1918: 


Year. 

Kilo¬ 
meters 
in  use. 

Number  of 
passengers. 

Goods 

carried. 

Cost  of 
construc¬ 
tion. 

Gross 

revenue. 

Net 

revenue. 

W  or  king 
expenses. 

1914 . 

206 

3, 351, 706 

Metric  tons. 
80S  944 
840, 165 

Florins. 
34, 428,  829 

Florins. 

5, 162, 100 

Florins. 

2,  249, 142 

Florins. 
2,912,958 
2,870,649 
2,764, 125 
3, 101,661 
3, 250, 230 

1915 . 

210 

3, 264. 097 
3, 648'  621 

35,323, 810 
36, 351, 240 
36, 661,310 

5, 065'  498 

2, 194'  819 

1916 . 

210 

957, 343 
921, 625 

5, 752,  526 

2,9'8, 401 
2, 349,  731 

1917 . 

210 

4, 140,  088 
4, 099, 071 

5'  451'  392 

1918 . 

210 

1,072,115 

36, 753, 332 

6, 264, 857 

3',  014'  627 

DELI  RAILWAY  CO. 


In  the  district  of  Deli  (East  Coast  of  Sumatra)  a  third  railroad 
was  constructed  by  private  enterprise.  In  1883  a  concession  was 
granted  to  the  Deli  Co.  (Deli  Maatschappij)  for  the  construction 
and  exploitation  of  a  railway,  running  from  the  anchorage  on  the 
Belawan  River  via  Medan  to  Deli  Toea,  with  a  side  line  to  Tim- 
banglangkat.  This  concession  was  transferred  to  the  Deli  Rail¬ 
way  Co.  (Deli  Spoorweg  Maatschappij),  established  at  Amsterdam. 

The  first  part,  17  kilometers  (11  miles)  in  length,  was  opened  to 
traffic  July  25,  1886,  and  the  line  was  further  completed  and  opened 
up  in  1887  and  1888.  This  company  has  since  been  granted  various 


50 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


concessions  for  the  construction  of  other  railway  and  tramway  lines. 
In  the  method  of  construction  and  exploitation,  however,  there  is 
no  appreciable  dilference  between  the  railways  and  tramways,  and 
in  the  latest  revisions  of  concessions  some  tramways  were  renamed 
as  railroads,  and  vice  versa. 

The  company  is  at  present  exploiting  the  following  railways: 
Bela  wan  to  Medan,  Medan  Timbang  to  Langkat,  Medan  to  Per- 
baoengan,  Perbaoengan  to  Tebingtinggi  to  Tandjoengbalai  to 
Teloekniboeng,  and  Tebingtinggi  to  Pematang  Siantar;  also  the 
following  tramways :  Medan  to  Deli  Toea  to  Batoe,  Kampong  Baroe 
to  Arnhemia,  Loeboekpakam  to  Bangoenpoerba,  Timbang  Lankat  to 
Kwala,  Timbang  Langkat  to  Pangkalanbrandan,  and  Pangkalan- 
brandan  to  Besitang. 

The  following  table  gives  some  data  regarding  the  working  of 
these  railroads  and  tramways  over  the  period  1914  to  1918 : 


Year. 

Kilo¬ 
meters 
in  use. 

Number  of 
passengers. 

Goorls 

carried. 

Cost  of 
construc¬ 
tion. 

Gross 

revenue. 

Net 

revenue. 

Working 

expenses. 

1914 . 

263 

3, 079, 432 
3, 064, 627 
3, 930,  221 
4, 573, 450 

Mdrfc  t.nns. 
5S7, 816 
800, 455 
954, 350 
918, 515 
893, 638 

Florin*. 

22, 697, 829 
25, 680;  188 
27, 678, 081 

Florins. 

3, 300, 017 
3, 433, 636 
4, 513, 424 

Florins. 

1, 598,  258 
1,754,708 
2,  509,  279 
2,805,866 
2, 874, 824 

Florins. 
1,701,759 
1,678, 928 
2, 004, 145 
2, 273, 490 
2,731,671 

1915 . 

361 

1916 . 

410 

1917 . 

410 

30,  285'  429 

5, 079, 356 
5, 606, 495 

1918 . 

414 

4, 529'  174 

33,  295, 158 

Since  January  1,  1916,  the  company  has  run  an  autobus  service 
from  Medan  to  Kaban  Djahe. 

TRAMWAYS. 

The  tramway  net  established  with  private  capital  at  the  end  of 
1918  reached  a  total  length  of  about  2,200  kilometers  (1,367  miles). 
The  principal  private  tramway  companies  are: 

The  Semarang- Joana  Steam  Tram  Co.,  which  runs  the  following 
lines:  Semarang  to  Joana  to  Lasem  to  Pamotan  to  Ngantang  to 
Djatirogo,  with  side  lines  from  Demak  to  Blora,  Koedoes  to  Petja- 
gaan  (with  side  line  from  Majong  to  Welahan),  Joana  to  Tajoe, 
Kembang  to  Tjepoe,  Poerwadadi  to  Goendik,  and  Wirosari  to  Krade- 
nan. 

The  East  Java  Steam  Tram  Co.,  which  runs  the  lines  Soerabaya  to 
Sepandjang  to  Krian,  Wonokromo  to  Koepang,  Pasar  Toeri  to 
Stadstuin  Harbor,  aad  Modjokerto  »to  Ngoro,  with  side  line  from 
Soemengko  to  Dinojo. 

The  Serajoedal  Steam  Tram  Co.,  which  runs  the  lines  Maos  to 
Bandjarnegara,  Bandjarsari  to  Poerbolinggo,  and  Bandjarnegara  to 
Wonosobo. 

The  Semarang-Cheribon  Steam  Tram  Co.,  which  runs  the  lines 
Semarang  to  Cheribon  to  Kadi  paten,  Pekalongan  to  Wonopringgo, 
and  Tegal  to  Balapoelang  to  Margasari. 

The  Kediri  Steam  Tram  Co.,  which  runs  the  lines  Kediri  to  Djom- 
bang,  with  side  lines  from  Pesantren  to  Wates,  Goerah  to  Kawaras- 
san  to  Palem  to  Papar,  Pare  to  Kepoeng,  Pare  to  Konto,  and 
Poeloredjo  to  Kandangan. 


TRANSPORTATION. 


51 


The  Malang  Steam  Tram  Co.,  with  the  lines  Singosari  to  Blimbing 
to  Malang,  Gedonglegi  to  Dampit,  with  side  lines  from  Gedonglegi 
to  Senggoro  to  Kepandjen,  Blimbing  to  Toempang,  and  Seda  joe  to 
Toeren. 

The  Pasoeroean  Steam  Tram  Co.,  with  the  line  from  Pasoeroen  to 
Waroengdowo  and  side  lines  from  Waroengdowo  to  Alkmaar, 
Waroengdowo  to  Winongan,  and  Waroengdowo  to  Ngempit. 

The  Probolinggo  Steam  Tram  Co.,  with  the  line  from  Modjokerto 
to  Porong  and  side  lines  from  Djapannan  to  Bangil  and  Bangsal  to 
Poegeran. 

The  Madoera  Steam  Tram  Co.,  with  the  lines  Kamal  to  Pamekasan 
to  Soemenep  to  Kaliangat,  and  Kamal  to  Bangkalan  to  Tanshmerah 
to  Kwanjar. 

Requisitions  for  the  supplies  of  the  above  privately  owned  rail¬ 
ways  and  tram  lines  are  initiated  in  Java,  but  the  final  orders  are 
placed  from  the  head  offices  in  the  Netherlands.  Further  data,  in¬ 
cluding  maps,  annual  reports,  and  equipment  statements,  are  on 
file  with  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

PROPOSED  RAILWAY  EXTENSIONS. 


The  program  of  railroad  extension  outlined  below  was  submitted 
by  the  colonial  government  as  the  program  for  the  next  20  years: 


JAVA. 


Kilometers. 


North  Cheribon -  200 

Preanger  Regencies:  South  of  Bandoeng;  between  Ranjaekek  and  Kadi- 

paten  (ready  up  to  Djatinangor) - 175 

From  Buitenzorg  in  the  direction  of  Rangkasbitoeng  and  Bekasi  or  Lama- 

habang -  160 

Bantam:  Serang  to  Tangerang;  Laboean  to  Anjer;  Laboean  to  Tjiteu- 

reup;  Rangkasbitoeng  to  Bodjongmaik ;  line  to  Malinping _  250 

Extension  from  Tjibatoe  to  Garoet  to  Tjikadjang;  extension  from  Tasik- 
malaja  to  Singaparna  to  Soekaradja;  tramways  in  South  Kedoe,  Toe- 
loengagoeng  to  Kediri  to  Ngandjoek;  enlargement  of  tramways  in  the 
east  corner  of  Java  (Residencies  of  Soerabaya,  Pasoeroean,  and  Be- 
soeki ) -  265 


1,  050 


STJMATBA. 


Completion  of  south  Sumatra  lines,  including  Moeara  Enim  to  Lahat _  200 

Moeara  Tebo  to  Taloek  and  to  Moeara  Kalaban  and  Pakanbaroe _  880 

Junction  with  Benkoelen,  including  line  along  coast _  250 

Junction  to  Djambi  from  Soeroelangoen  through  the  oil  fields  to  Moe- 

arabahar  -  125 

Side  lines: 

Lima  line _ _ _  70 

Martapoera  to  Moearadoea -  40 

Batoeradja  to  Upper  Ogan -  40 

Lower  Komering  line _  40 

Pasawah  line -  70 

Djelatang  to  Korintji -  155 


19878°— 23 - 5 


1,  870 


52 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Kilometers. 


Sibolga  to  Padangsidimpoean _ _ _  90 

Extension  of  the  last-mentioned  line  to  Penjaboengan  and  junction  with 

the  Deli  Railway  (Kota  Pinang)  and  with  Pakanbaroe _  500 

Junction  with  Padang  line  (from  Soengailimau),  with  the  Ophir  districts, 

and  line  from  Loeboeksikaping  to  Pasir  Pengarajan _  250 


840 


CELEBES. 


Takalar  to  Macassar  to  Maros _ 72 

Extension  of  this  line  to  Pare  Pare  or  Soengkang _  130 

Further  extension  from  Pare  Pare  along  the  bay  of  Mandar  to  Toebo _  220 

Junction  with  Palopo  and  Malili  and  extension  of  this  line  to  the  bay  of 

Tolo_ _  350 

Side  line,  Lowa  to  Soenkang  to  South  Boni _  150 

Side  line,  Soenkang  to  Takalala _  40 

In  North  Celebes  a  net  in  the  Minahasa _ _ _  200 


1, 162 

BORNEO. 


Pontianak  to  Sambas _ 1 _  220 

Side  line  to  Benkahan _ : _  110 

Pontianak  to  Meraoe  to  Kuching — -  270 

Side  lines: 

•Ngabang  to  Sanggau - : -  90 

Ngabang  to  Perigi _  70 

Pontianak  to  Soengeikakap  to  Pematang  to  Toedjoe _  40 

Bandjermasin  to  Martapoera  to  Tandjoeng _  250 

Martapoera  to  Pleihari  to  Pagatan -  220 


1,  270 

Smaller  islands,  as  Bali,  Lombok,  Banka,  Billiton _  500 


Grand  total _ 6,  700 


RAILWAYS  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  Federated  Malay  States  Railways  operate  all  the  railways  in 
the  British  possessions  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  the  exception 
of  a  short  line  on  the  west  coast  of  the  State  of  J ohore.  The  western 
or  main  system  runs  from  Singapore  to  Woodlands  on  the  island 
of  Singapore,  from  Johore  Bahru  at  the  southern  point  of  the  State 
of  Johore  to  Prai  on  the  mainland  opposite  to  Penang,  and  from 
Prai  to  Padang  Besar  on  the  Siamese  boundary,  where  it  connects 
with  the  Siamese  State  Railways.  Branches  are  operated  from  the 
main  line  to  Malacca,  Port  Dickson,  Port  Swettenham,  Kuala 
Selangor,  Ampang,  Bat'u  Caves,  Batang  Berjuntal,  Teluk  Anson, 
Tronoh,  and  Port  Weld.  The  eastern  system  is  in  course  of  con¬ 
struction.  It  branches  from  the  main  line  at  Gemas,  in  Negri  Sembi- 
lan,  from  where  a  line  has  been  built  and  is  being  operated  beyond 
Kuala  Lipis.  This  line  is  being  pushed  north  to  connect  with  a 
northern  section  that  is  being  built  southward  from  Kota  Bharu.  A 
branch  is  now  operating  to  Kuala  Pilah,  in  Negri  Sembilan. 

The  total  length  of  lines  (reduced  to  single  track)  open  on  De¬ 
cember  31,  1920,  was  1,014  miles  (including  Johore  leased  lines),  and 
of  running  lines  and  sidings  1,150  miles;  gauge,  1  meter. 

Purchases  are  made  through  the  Crown  agents  in  London  and  from 
local  stocks. 


TRANSPORTATION. 


53 


A  light  railway,  2  feet  6  inches  gauge,  8-J-  miles  long,  connects  the 
town  of  Muar,  State  of  Johore,  with  JParit  Jawa,  to  the  southeast. 
It  is  operated  by  the  State  of  Johore. 

A  railway  from  Brunei  Bay  in  British  North  Borneo  to  the  in¬ 
terior  is  operated  by  the  British  North  Borneo  Co.  Twenty  miles 
have  been  constructed,  on  a  meter  gauge,  between  the  port  of  Weston 
and  Beaufort,  57  miles  between  Beaufort  and  Jesselton  on  Goya  Bay, 
and  40  miles  up  the  valley  of  the  Padas  to  Tenom  and  Melalap. 

SHIPPING  IN  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

The  great  development  of  colonial  enterprise  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  since  the  beginning  of  this  century  and  up  to  the  break¬ 
ing  out  of  the  World  War  has  provided  a  continually  expanding  field 
for  shipping,  in  which  the  Dutch  steamship  companies  have  taken  by 
far  the  greatest  part.  The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  islands 
increased  from  about  500,000,000  florins  in  1904  to  1,114,000,000 
florins  in  1914  and  to  2,960,000,000  florins  in  1919.  Giving  due  allow¬ 
ance  for  price  increases,  these  figures  indicate  a  steadily  expanding 
commerce.  All  the  commodities  in  this  trade  must  be  carried  by 
water. 

The  following  table  shows  the  measured  capacity  (in  units  of 
1,000  cubic  meters)  of  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  trade  that  entered 
Netherlands  East  Indies  ports  in  1913  and  in  1916-1919,  exclusive  of 
warships  and  Government-owned  vessels.  (One  cubic  meter  equals 
0.353  United  States  register  ton.) 


Nationality. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

5,584 
5, 732 

5,826 

4,939 

4,059 

5, 327 

United  Kingdom . 

4, 469 

3' 058 

1, 996 

3,994 

Germany . 

1, 799 
169 

Norway" . 

247 

155 

106 

230 

United"  States . 

1 

44 

30 

58 

323 

Sweden . 

155 

142 

32 

20 

137 

Denmark . . 

180 

67 

40 

80 

277 

Japan . 

558 

556 

507 

1, 248 
222 

1,905 

All  other . 

102 

153 

125 

329 

Total . 

14,  280 

11,504 

8,886 

7,789 

12, 522 

In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  position  of  the  maritime  coun¬ 
tries  with  regard  to  the  interport  trade  of  the  colony.  Figures  rep¬ 
resent  1,000  cubic  meters  of  vessel  measurement  (1  cubic  meter  equals 
0.353  United  States  register  ton). 


Nationality. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

61,902 
10, 152 

60, 452 

53, 141 

48,184 

54,812 

5,247 

1 

United  Kingdom . 

6'  735 

4' 469 

2,235 

Germany. .  T . 

4, 274 

Norway" . 

244 

189 

79 

si 

446 

Sweden . 

133 

70 

23 

59 

191 

180 

340 

3,361 

949 

Denmark . 

13 

1 

38 

United  States . 

•  25 

28 

3 

Japan . 

1,190 

1,351 

141 

1, 456 

2, 250 

All  other . 

'414 

217 

403 

Total . 

78, 189 

69,096 

59, 414 

53,223 

65,527 

54 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


STATUS  OF  AMERICAN  SHIPS  IN  THE  INTERPORT  TRADE. 

In  answer  to  a  request  for  a  definition  of  the  rights  of  American 
ships  in  the  interport  trade  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  the  head 
inspector  of  the  Navigation  Service  made  the  following  statement: 

The  coasting  trade  is  open  to  all  flags  on  equal  conditions  with  the  Dutch  flag. 
The  Crown  has  reserved  the  right,  however,  to  exclude  from  the  coasting  trade 
in  the  Netherlands  Indies  ships  belonging  to  States  or  colonies  where  coasting 
trade  is  prohibited  to  ships  belonging  either  to  the  Netherlands  or  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies. 


SHIPPING  IN  THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

The  following  table  gives  the  tonnage  of  combined  arrivals  and 
departures  of  merchant  vessels  in  British  Malayan  ports  in  1919, 
exclusive  of  native  sailing  craft  and  steamers  under  50  tons  net 
register : 


Nationality. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

Malacca. 

Christmas 
Island  and 
Labuan. 

Total  (en¬ 
tered  and 
cleared). 

American . 

Net  tons. 
327, 758 
2, 768 
6, 516, 855 
84,975 
196, 874 
2, 007, 405 
581, 307 
11, 872 
178, 374 
47,  854 
3, 439, 005 
163, 112 
16, 286 
88, 742 
104, 614 
230, 872 
48, 626 
41, 476 

Net  tons. 
42,574 
6, 810 
2,954,575 
12, 198 
62,936 
339,962 
16, 162 

Net  tons. 

Net  tons. 

7, 776 

Net  tons. 
378, 108 
9,578 
10,081, 120 
97, 173 
259, 810 
2,348,999 
604,843 
11,872 
178,374 
47,854 
4, 102, 800 
183,268 
16, 286 
92,912 
119,264 
252,554 
52,368 
48,000 

Belgian . 

British . 

467,  588 

142, 102 

Chinese . 

Danish . 

Dutch . 

1,008 

7,374 

624 

French . 

Greek . 

Interallied . 

Italian . 

Japanese . 

517, 635 
20, 156 

88, 430 

57, 730 

Norwegian . 

Portuguese . 

Russian . 

4,170 

Sarawak . 

14, 650 

Siamese . 

21, 682 
3, 742 
6,524 

Spanish . 

Swedish . 

Total . 

14,088,775 

4,009,126 

564,400 

222, 882 

18, 885, 183 

The  nationality,  number,  and  tonnage  of  merchant  vessels  entered 
and  cleared  at  Singapore  during  1919,  exclusive  of  native  craft  and 
steamers  under  50  tons  register,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Nationality. 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

Total. 

Number. 

Net  tons. 

Number. 

Net  tons. 

Number. 

Net  tons. 

American . 

63 

164, 160 

62 

163, 598 

125 

327,758 

Belgian . 

1 

1,384 

1 

1,384 

2 

2,768 

British . 

2,751 

3,260,319 

2,750 

3, 256, 536 

5,  501 

6, 516,  855 

Chinese . 

36 

41, 592 

38 

43,383 

74 

84;  975 

Danish . 

41 

98,437 

41 

98, 437 

82 

196, 874 

Dutch . 

1,341 

1, 002, 958 

1,344 

1, 004, 447 

2, 685 

2, 007, 405 

French . 

182 

292, 097 

182 

289, 210 

364 

581,307 

Greek . 

2 

5, 936 

2 

5,936 

4 

11,872 

Interallied . : 

34 

106, 211 

20 

72,163 

54 

178,374 

Italian . 

7 

23,927 

7 

23,927 

14 

47,854 

Japanese . 

758 

1,722,619 

753 

1,716,386 

1,511 

3, 439, 005 

Norwegian . 

81 

80, 049 

82 

83,063 

163 

163, 112 

Portuguese . 

3 

8, 143 

3 

8,143 

6 

16,286 

Russian . 

23 

44,371 

23 

44,371 

46 

88,742 

Sarawak . 

85 

52,307 

85 

52,307 

170 

104, 614 

Siamese . 

205 

115, 436 

205 

115, 436 

410 

230,872 

Spanish . 

10 

24,313 

10 

24,313 

20 

48,626 

Swedish . 

7 

20,738 

7 

20, 738 

14 

41, 476 

Total . 

5,630 

7,064, 997 

5,615 

7,023, 778 

11, 245 

14,088,775 

TRANSPORTATION. 


55 


The  number  and  tonnage  of  native  craft  and  steam  vessels  under 
50  tons  entered  at  Singapore  in  1919  was  as  follows :  British,  10,587 
vessels  of  570,341  tons;  foreign,  6,806  vessels  of  315,831  tons. 

LOCATION  OF  EAST  INDIES  PORTS  WITH  RESPECT  TO  WORLD 

TRADE. 

In  considering  the  export  trade  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
and  British  Malaya  the  transportation  cost  and  trade  organization 
are  most  important,  while  manufacture  is  much  less  so  than  in  most 
countries. 

Most  of  the  products  of  these  colonies  enter  world  trade  through 
the  ports  of  Singapore  and  Penang  in  the  Straits  Settlements  and 
through  Soerabaya,  Semarang,  and  Batavia  in  J ava.  However,  rub¬ 
ber  is  also  shipped  from  Port  Swettenham  and  Telok  Anson  in  the 
Federated  Malay  States  and  from  Belawan  Deli  in  Sumatra;  sugar 
is  shipped  from  the  minor  ports  of  Java;  copra  from  Macassar  in 
the  Celebes,  Tjilatjap  in  Java,  Belawan  Deli  and  Padang  in  Sumatra, 
and  from  Port  Swettenham  and  Telok  Anson  in  the  Federated  Malay 
States.  A  few  other  products  which  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year 
aggregate  sufficient  quantities  to  make  it  advisable  for  ships  to  call 
are  also  shipped  from  these  minor  ports. 

Soerabaya  is  most  favorably  situated  for  handling  products  from 
south  and  east  Borneo,  the  island  of  Celebes,  and  the  chain  of  is¬ 
lands  directly  east  of  Java.  Its  immediate  hinterland  on  the  island 
of  Java  is  one  of  the  greatest  producing  areas  of  the  world. 

Semarang’s  hinterland  comprises  only  the  central  part  of  Java, 
but  this  area  is  a  large  producer  of  sugar,  copra,  kapok,  and  other 
bulk  cargo.  It  is  not  a  transshipment  port  of  great  importance. 

Batavia  is  the  market  and  port  for  western  Java,  and  serves  also 
in  part  for  the  districts  in  west  and  south  Sumatra  and  west  Borneo. 

Singapore  and  Penang  are  the  local  markets  for  the  products  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula  and  northern  (British)  Borneo.  They  draw 
products  very  largely  from  all  of  Sumatra,  except  the  Benkoelen  and 
Lampong  Residencies  in  the  south;  from  the  islands  lying  between 
Sumatra  and  Borneo ;  from  the  west’,  south,  and  east  coasts  of  Borneo, 
and  from  Celebes  and  the  islands  to  the  east. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distances  in  nautical  miles  from 
Manila,  Singapore,  Batavia,  Soerabaya,  and  Penang  to  the  principal 
ports  in  the  United  States  and  to  London : 


Ports. 

Manila. 

Singa¬ 

pore. 

Batavia. 

Soera¬ 

baya. 

Penang. 

New  York: 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Via  Panama . 

11,540 

12, 522 

12, 639 

12,429 

12,910 

Via  Suez . 

New  Orleans: 

11, 521 

10,154 

10,345 

10, 765 

9,830 

Via  Panama . 

10, 918 

11,935 

12, 039 

11,739 

12,315 

Via  Suez . 

12, 980 

11,595 

11,830 

12,250 

11, 305 

San  Francisco . 

6,221 

7,330 

7,  613 

7,313 

7,718 

Port  Townsend . 

5, 931 

7,027 

IS  310 

7,010 

7,415 

London . 

9,  656 

8,280 

8,  515 

8,935 

7,990 

NEW  YORK  VIA  SUEZ  AND  PANAMA. 

Singapore  and  Penang  are  closer  to  New  York  via  Suez  than  via 
Panama  by  2,368  and  3,080  miles,  respectively.  The  total  distances 
from  the  secondary  ports  all  favor  the  Suez  route. 


56  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

These  two  British  Malaya  ports  have  an  advantage  over  the  Java 
ports,  in  total  distance,  for  shipments  from  all  ports  in  Sumatra 
from  Padang  north  (on  the  west  coast)  and  from  Palembang  north 
(on  the  east  coast) ;  from  the  islands  lying  between  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
and  British  Malaya;  and  from  all  the  coasts  of  Borneo,  although 
from  south  and  east  Borneo  ports  the  advantage  is  small;  and  only 
from  the  north  Sumatra  points,  when  routed  through  Penang,  is  the 
advantage  great.  In  Celebes  Island  and  the  islands  to  the  east  and 
south  the  advantage  is  slightly  in  favor  of  Soerabaya. 

Manila  is  not  in  a  position,  in  point  of  distance,  to  compete  for 
the  New  York  trade  in  these  colonies,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  ports  of  Menado,  Gorontalo,  and  Ternate,  which  are  approxi¬ 
mately  500  miles  farther  from  New  York  via  Manila  and  Panama. 

NEW  ORLEANS  VIA  SUEZ  AND  PANAMA. 

Singapore  and  Penang  are  closer  to  New  Orleans  via  Suez  than 
via  Panama  by  340  and  1,110  miles,  respectively;  Manila  is  closer 
via  the  Panama  route  by  2,062  miles  and  Soerabaya  by  511  miles. 

Singapore  and  Penang  have  an  advantage  for  shipments  from  the 
ports  in  Sumatra,  including  Padang  and  ports  north  and  Palembang 
on  the  east  coast  and  ports  north;  also  from  the  ports  in  the  adja¬ 
cent  islands  and  on  the  west  and  south  coasts  of  Borneo. 

Soerabaya  has  an  advantage  for  shipments  from  the  islands  lying 
directly  east  of  Java  when  made  via  the  Panama  route. 

Manila  has  an  advantage  for  shipments  from  ports  on  the  east 
and  north  coasts  of  Borneo  and  from  Celebes  and  northern  Molucca 
ports,  when  made  via  Panama. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  AND  PORT  TOWNSEND. 

Manila  is  closer  to  San  Francisco  and  Port  Townsend  than  Singa¬ 
pore  by  1,109  and  1,096  miles,  and  nearer  than  Soerabaya  by  1,092 
and  1,079  miles,  respectively. 

Singapore  has  the  advantage  for  shipments  to  both  Pacific  coast 
ports  from  Sibolga  and  Sabang  in  north  Sumatra,  from  the  east 
coast  of  Sumatra  as  far  south  as  Palembang,  and  from  the  adjacent 
islands. 

Batavia  has  the  advantage  for  shipments  from  other  Sumatra 
ports  and  Soerabaya  from  southern  Borneo  ports,  from  the  islands 
lying  directly  east  of  Java,  and  the  southern  Moluccas. 

Manila  has  a  slight  advantage  for  shipments  from  the  west  coast 
of  Borneo,  and  a  decided  advantage  for  shipments  from  the  north 
and  east  coast  of  Borneo,  from  Macassar,  north  Celebes,  and  the 
northern  Moluccas. 

LONDON  AND  CONTINENTAL  EUROPEAN  PORTS. 

Singapore  has  more  or  less  of  an  advantage  in  distance  to  London 
and  continental  European  ports  from  all  points  in  the  two  colonies, 
except  the  Moluccas  and  the  islands  lying  to  the  east  of  Java,  from 
which  points  Soerabaya  has  the  advantage. 

STEAMSHIP  ROUTES. 

Besides  the  Dutch  and  British  lines  which  connect  these  ports  with 
Europe,  with  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States, 


TRANSPORTATION. 


57 


with  South  Africa,  with  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  South  America, 
and  with  Australia,  there  are  Japanese  lines,  Scandinavian  lines,  and 
American  lines  operating  on  routes  designed  to  deliver  cargo  to  and 
from  these  ports  by  the  shortest  routes  consistent  with  economic 
handling  of  their  ships.  All  lines  operating  from  Europe  to  the  Far 
East  focus  at  Singapore. 

In  considering  the  Java  ports  it  should  be  understood  that  one  of 
the  Royal  Dutch  European  lines  approaches  Java  by  way  of  Sabang 
and  Padang,  on  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  returning  by  the  same 
route,  while  the  other  one  approaches  by  way  of  the  Strait*  of 
Malacca  and  Singapore.  Their  first  port  of  call  in  Java  is  Batavia, 
from  which  they  go  to  Semarang  and  Soerabaya.  The  principal 
British  line  serving  Java  is  routed  through  Singapore  to  Soerabaya 
via  Batavia  and  Semarang.  The  feeder  service  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  calls  at  all  their  major  ports. 

The  Dutch  services  are  supported  by  a  business  organization  that 
is  efficient  not  only  for  the  gathering  of  merchandise  from  the  re¬ 
motest  parts  of  the  archipelago  but  for  its  distribution  to  the  mar¬ 
kets  of  Europe,  America,  and  Asia. 

The  British  trade  organization  at  Singapore  controls  the  markets 
for  many  of  the  minor  products  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
through  superior  marketing  facilities,  by  its  equipment  in  Singapore 
and  Penang  for  repacking,  regrading,  leveling  of  grades,  and  for 
the  first  stages  of  manufacture. 

All  these  ports  have  the  basic  advantage  of  a  local  production  of 
a  large  quantity  of  bulk  cargo  in  the  immediate  hinterland. 

BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION  FOR  STEAMSHIP  OPERATION. 

In  Java  there  are  no  American  houses  in  a  position  to  give  Ameri¬ 
can  lines  efficient  representation.  The  Dutch  companies,  which  might 
otherwise  qualify  as  agents,  are  so  closely  related  to  competitor  in¬ 
terests,  or  so  much  in  their  power,  that  it  does  not  seem  feasible  to 
use  them.  There  remain  only  a  few  British  houses  which  are  at 
present  representing  all  of  the  American  lines  calling  at  Java  ports. 

While  it  seems  necessary,  for  the  time  being,  to  make  use  of  British 
organizations  for  the  representation  of  American  companies,  satis¬ 
factory  progress  can  not  be  made  in  our  foreign  trade  connections 
if  this  practice  is  permanently  adhered  to.  British  methods  have 
been  well  adapted  to  the  British  temperament  and  needs,  but  a 
whole-hearted  cooperation  with  American  methods  of  agency  control 
can  not  be  expected. 

In  Singapore  two  American  lines  are  represented  by  branches  of 
their  home  offices  under  American  management,  another  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  agent  of  one  of  the  above  lines,  and  two  are  represented 
by  British  concerns. 

Exporters  and  importers  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  de¬ 
pendent  on  the  established  shipping  companies  there,  and  many  of 
them  chafe  under  the  power  which  these  companies  wield.  The  entry 
of  a  new  competitor  in  the  field  would  be  welcome  to  these  shippers, 
provided  this  competitor  offered  facilities  which  made  its  patrons 
independent  of  the  European  conference.  If  American  steamship 
companies  wish  to  gain  a  secure  foothold  in  this  region,  they  should, 
therefore,  make  provision  for  delivering  cargo  to  the  principal  Euro¬ 
pean  ports. 


58 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA* 


COMMERCIAL  AND  SHIPPING  AFFILIATIONS. 

The  Dutch  commercial  organization  did  not  begin  to  develop  in¬ 
tensively  until  the  beginning  of  the  third  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Prior  to  that  time  business  had  been  carried  on  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  and  by  companies  operating  under  special  concessions,  and 
was  focused  on  the  products  of  Java  and  the  Spice  Islands,  in  which 
there  was  a  whole  or  partial  monopoly,  and  from  which  there  was  a 
prospect  of  large  profits  with  a  minimum  of  effort  in  collection  and 
distribution. 

The  Dutch  apathy  toward  th§  trade  in  the  minor  products  gave  an 
exceptional  opportunity  to  the  Singapore  merchants,  who  were  not 
slow  to  seize  it.  Singapore  and  Penang  Chinese  merchants  have 
branches  or  close  connections  throughout  the  islands  lying  between 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo;  the  whole  of  Sumatra; 
and  west  Borneo,  the  trade  of  which  goes  through  the  ports  of 
Pontianak,  Sambas,  and  Ketapang  and  is  very  closely  allied  with 
Singapore. 

Products  from  these  districts,  and  such  western  products  as  are 
taken  in  return,  are  carried  by  Chinese  steamers  and  sailing  vessels 
under  the  British  flag  by  one  important  British  line  plying  between 
Singapore  and  Belawan  Deli  (Sumatra  East  Coast)  and  by  the 
Dutch  K.  P.  M.  (Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Mij.),  the  “Royal  Dutch” 
line  which  operates  throughout  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 

In  the  Residency  of  South  Borneo,  the  trade  of  which  goes  through 
the  ports  of  Bandjermasin,  Semoedi,  and  Koemai,  the  Singapore 
Chinese  have  close  connections.  This  district  produces  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  gums,  rattans,  and  other  forest  products,  which  find  a  market 
largely  through  Singapore.  Chinese  steamers  run  from  Singapore 
to  Bandjermasin  and  way  ports  and  to  East  Borneo  ports.  '  Soera-* 
baya  merchants  also  have  close  connections  with  the  South  Borneo 
ports,  and  very  excellent  steamship  services  are  maintained  by  the 
K.  P.  M.  from  Soerabaya  to  South  and  East  Borneo  ports. 

Balikpapan  and  Tarakan,  in  East  Borneo,  are  “  oil  ports,”  at 
which  oil-burning  steamers  often  call  for  fuel  rather  than  to  draw 
on  the  stocks  at  Singapore.  Much  of  the  trade  in  forest  products 
from  this  district  finds  a  market  through  Singapore,  but  Soerabaya 
and  Macassar  are  making  a  strong  bid  for  this  business,  aided  by  the 
K.  P.  M.  steamship  services.  The  close  connections  between  the 
Singapore  Chinese  and  the  Chinese  of  the  district,  and  the  superior 
marketing  facilities  provided  by  the  British  exporting  houses,  are  a 
severe  handicap  to  the  Dutch  ports  mentioned,  and  it  may  be  as¬ 
sumed  that  Singapore  will  hold  a  considerable  part  of  this  trade  for 
some  time  to  come. 

The  trade  organization  and  steamship  routes  in  Celebes,  the 
Moluccas,  and  the  islands  to  the  south  and  east  favor  the  port  and 
market  of  Soerabaya.  In  pre-war  years  these  districts  depended 
very  largely  on  Singapore  for  their  imports  of  rice,  and  British  Chi¬ 
nese  steamers  plied  between  Singapore,  the  Moluccas,  and,  it  is  said, 
even  to  New  Guinea  with  rice,  bringing  back  products  of  these  islands. 
The  Singapore  Chinese  claim  that  they  still  have  their  connections  in 
these  ports  and  that  the  trade  will  be  resumed.  An  important  part 
of  the  production  of  spices  from  Ambon  and  Banda  is  consigned  to 
Singapore  Chinese  for  sale  or  reconsignment  to  the  world  markets. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  4— HOUSE  OF  THE  VOLKSRAA D  (PEOPLE’S  COUNCIL)  AT  WELTEVREDEN. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  5. —  MOHAMMEDAN  TEMPLE  AT  KUALA  LUMPUR,  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 


TRANSPORTATION. 


59 


Lying  east  of  Java  is  a  long  chain  of  islands  called  the  Smaller 
Soenda  Islands,  Bali,  Lombok*,  Soembawa,  Flores,  Soemba,  and 
Timor  being  the  principal  ones.  The  trade  of  this  group  goes  largely 
through  Soerabaya,  but  there  are  some  notable  exceptions.  The 
Macassar  Chinese  have  close  connections  with  Timor,  Flores,  Soem¬ 
bawa,  and  Soemba,  and  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij 
operates  a  line  from  Macassar  to  these  islands,  carrying  cotton  goods, 
rice,  and  foodstuffs  and  returning  with  rattans,  copra,  hardwoods, 
hides,  horns,  spices,  coffee,  and  Flores,  Burgos,  and  Troca  shells,  as 
well  as  less  important  products.  Hogs  from  Bali  and  Lombok  (the 
inhabitants  of  these  islands  are  largely  Hindus)  go  past  Soerabaya 
to  Singapore,  where  they  are  either  sold  locally  or  shipped  to  China 
and  other  northern  markets.  There  is  also  a  considerable  export 
from  these  islands  direct  to  Singapore  of  hides,  coffee,  shells,  chick¬ 
ens,  birds’  nests,  and  fruit. 

The  British  business  organization  in  the  British  Malayan  posses¬ 
sions  is  a  model  of  thoroughness,  reaching  in  a  powerful  way 
through  the  closely  woven  fabric  of  Chinese  business  that  touches 
the  Dutch  territory  at  vital  points.  There  are  several  groups  of 
British  exporting  and  importing  houses  and  plantation  companies, 
and  British  banks  are  established  at  all  the  strategic  points.  These 
all  support  the  British  steamship  lines  in  a  most  effective  way. 

The  Dutch  business  organizations  are  closely  knit  together  by  in¬ 
terlocking  directorates  and  other  mutual  interests.  Branches  of  many 
of  the  larger  banking  and  merchandising  organizations  are  estab¬ 
lished  at  Singapore  or  Penang.  Most  of  these  organizations  are 
working  in  cooperation  with  the  Dutch  steamship  companies  for  the 
furtherance  of  the  trade  of  the  Netherlands. 

There  are  French  and  Japanese  banks  and  merchandising  com¬ 
panies  in  both  colonies  which  are  using  every  effort  to  further  the 
trade  and  support  the  steamship  lines  of  their  respective  countries, 
and  there  are  important  Danish  and  Italian  houses  operating  in 
both  colonies. 

There  are  two  American  banks  in  Singapore,  and  one  of  these  has 
branches  in  Batavia  and  Soerabaya.  There  is  a  form  of  American 
business  organization,  but,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  the  various 
units  have  not  become  firmly  rooted  in  the  trade.  The  banks  are  still 
exchange  banks  with  little  knowledge  of  or  interest  in  the  intimate 
factors  of  local  trade.  In  British  Malaya  two  of  the  steamship  com¬ 
panies  have  already  won  a  small  but  recognized  place  and  have  the 
beginnings  of  an  effective  organization,  but  in  the  Netherlands  Indies 
they  are  still  dependent  on  non- American  agents. 

The  basic  economic  factors  give  American  trade  in  these  colonies 
certain  definite  advantages  that  are  clearly  recognized  by  competitor 
countries,  and  this  has  been  evidenced  by  the  tightening  of  the  web 
of  organization  in  banking,  shipping,  and  control  of  raw  materials, 
all  designed  to  retard  or  make  impossible  the  coordination  of  these 
basic  advantages  with  the  developing  channels  of  trade  and  to  force 
American  importers  to  buy  the  products  of  these  colonies  through 
the  European  markets  and  to  sell  American  manufactures  through 
European  channels. 

Coordination  of  these  advantages  is  of  first  importance  to  the  life 
of  American  shipping  in  these  colonies.  American  merchandising 
effort  should  be  viewed  from  the  broadest  possible  angle  by  the 


60  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

manufacturers.  Purchasing  power  for  raw  materials  should  be 
organized  into  more  important'  units  and  the  buying  in  these  colonies 
delegated  to  American  houses  in  which  the  buyers  in  the  United 
States  have  confidence.  American  importers  in  these  colonies  should 
be  supported  by  American  manufacturers  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  if 
the  existing  organizations  are  not  qualified  for  proper  representation 
adequate  organizations  should  be  developed. 

In  foreign  trade,  in  merchandising,  banking,  and  shipping,  the 
United  States  is  face  to  face  with  a  combination  of  British  and  con¬ 
tinental  European  organizations  that  will  put  up  a  united  front  as 
against  the  development  of  American  shipping  and  merchandising. 
American  ships  will  not  get  an  equal  opportunity  in  the  ocean  carry¬ 
ing  trade  without  the  support  of  a  merchandising  organization  equal 
in  effectiveness  to  the  competition  presented. 

CONFERENCES  OF  SHIPPING  COMPANIES. 

EUROPEAN  CONFERENCE. 

The  European  Shipping  Conference  controls  the  bulk  of  the  ton¬ 
nage  operating  in  the  trade  between  American  and  European  ports, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  ports  of  British  Malaya  and  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  on  the  other. 

Subsidiary  to  this  conference  the  following  conferences  control 
cargoes  from  British  Malaya  and  Netherlands  East  Indian  ports  to 
European  and  American  ports :  The  Batavia  Conference,  the  Dutch- 
British-New  York  Conference,  and  the  Straits  Homeward  Confer¬ 
ence. 

The  European  Conference  exercises  control  through  the  Batavia 
Conference  of  a  conference  governing  shipments  to  and  from  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indian  ports  and  British  Indian  ports.  This  is  popularly 
known  as  the  Bengal  Conference. 

The  control  of  cargo  is  exercised  by  allowing  rebates  to  shippers 
who  contract  to  ship  exclusively  by  conference  steamers.  This  re¬ 
bate  amounts  to  a  total  of  10  per  cent  of  the  freight  charges,  payable 
in  London  in  such  a  way  as  to  retain  a  permanent  guaranty  of 
per  cent  in  the  treasury  of  the  conference,  which  will  be  forfeited  in 
case  shipments  are  made  by  nonconference  steamers.  The  rebate 
system  is  outlined  in  a  notice  from  a  member  company  to  the  ship¬ 
pers  of  British  Malaya,  extracts  from  which  follow : 

To  those  exporters  from  Singapore,  Penang,  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to 
Europe,  or  to  ports  via  Europe,  who,  from  the  1st  of  January  to  the  30th 
of  June  next,  may  have  found  it  to  their  interest  to  confine  their  support 

and  shipments  during  that  period  to  the  -  we  shall  be  happy  to  allow 

a  rebate  of  7^  per  cent  on  the  freights  contributed. 

To  those  who,  on  the  31st  of  December,  1921,  may  have  found  it  to  their 
interest  to  so  confine  their  support  and  shipments  during  the  whole  12  months 
to  the  said  line,  we  will  allow  a  further  2\  per  cent  on  freights  contributed 
up  to  the  30th  of  June,  1921. 

To  those  who,  on  the  31st  of  December,  1921,  may  have  found  it  to  their 
interest  to  confine  their  support  and  shipments  during  the  preceding  six 
months  to  the  said  line,  we  will  allow  a  rebate  of  per  cent  on  the  freights 
contributed. 

To  those  who,  on  the  30th  of  June,  1922,  may  have  found  it  to  their  in¬ 
terest  to  confine  their  support  and  shipments  during  the  previous  12  months 
to  the  said  line,  we  will  allow  an  additional  2}  per  cent  on  freights  con¬ 
tributed  during  the  six  months  ending  December  31,  1921. 


TRANSPORTATION.  61 

No  “  returns  ”  will  be  payable  on  freight  contributed  by  rice,  hemp,  to¬ 
bacco,  or  treasure. 

Exporters  applying  for  the  returns,  which  will  be  payable  in  London  on 
and  after  the  1st  of  September,  1921,  1st  of  March,  1922.  and  1st  of  Septem¬ 
ber,  1922,  respectively,  must  fill  up  and  sign  forms  which  can  be  obtained 
from  the  agents. 

Exporters  failing  to  apply  for  returns  within  three  months  after  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  each  rebate  period  forfeit  their  claim  thereto. 

The  following  are  the  member  companies  of  the  European  Con¬ 
ference  and  its  subsidiaries: 

Peninsular  &  Oriental,  British  India,  and  Apcar  Lines. 

The  Ocean  Steamship  Co.  (and  its  subsidiary,  the  Stoomvaart 
Mij.  Oceaan). 

The  Messageries  Maritimes  de  France. 

The  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha. 

The  Glen  and  Shire  Line. 

The  Ben  Line  steamers. 

The  Mutual  steamers  (China  Mutual  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  a 
subsidiary  of  Alfred  Holt  &  Co.,  operating  in  connection  with  the 
Ocean  Steamship  Co.). 

Ellerman  &  Bucknall  Steamship  Co.  (Ltd.). 

Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha. 

Companla  Transatlantica  of  Barcelona  and  Cadiz. 

The  East  Asiatic  Co.,  of  Copenhagen  (including  steamers  of  the 
Norwegian  Africa  and  Australia  Line,  to  Scandinavian  ports  only). 

Swedish  East'  Asiatic  Co.,  of  Goteborg. 

Holland  Oost-Asie  Lyn. 

Lloyd  Triestino  Steam  Navigation  Co. 

Navigazione  Generale  Italiana. 

Rotterdam  Lloyd. 

Stoomvaart  Mij.  Nederland. 

Compagnie  Franchise  de  Navigation  des  Chargeurs  Reunis  (to 
their  continental  ports  of  call  or  ports  adjacent  thereto). 

STRAITS  HOMEWARD  CONFERENCE. 

This  is  a  conference  operating  under  the  rebate  system,  and  its 
members  are  the  same  as  those  belonging  to  the  European  Conference. 
It  is  directly  subsidiary  to  that  conference.  Its  operation  in  Sin¬ 
gapore  is  said  to  be  somewhat  informal,  but  nevertheless  rigid.  For¬ 
mal  meetings  are  seldom  held  and  no  action  is  taken  independently 
of  the  principals  in  London.  Through  the  rebate  system  it  exercises 
a  strong  control  of  shippers  and  is  in  a  position  to  bring  about  re¬ 
taliatory  measures  on  shippers  using  steamers  in  the  Pacific  trade 
belonging  to  companies  not  in  the  European  Conference.  The  local 
agents  of  the  Alfred  Holt  Co.  (Ocean  Steamship  Co.,  commonly 
known  as  the  Blue  Funnel  or  Holt  Line),  Ellerman  &  Bucknall  . 
Steamship  Co.  (Ltd.),  and  the  Peninsular  &  Oriental  Steam  Naviga¬ 
tion  Co.  practically  control  the  actions  of  this  conference  in  Sin¬ 
gapore. 

BATAVIA  CONFERENCE. 

The  Batavia  Conference  controls  tonnage  and  cargo  from  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indian  ports  to  Europe  under  the  rebate  system  as  out¬ 
lined  above.  Member  companies  of  this  conference  are  in  control  of 


62 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


the  Java-China- Japan  Line,  the  Java-Pacific  Line,  and  the  Java- 
New  York  Line,  and  in  view  of  all  the  facts  it  may  logically  be  con¬ 
cluded  that  shippers  patronizing  the  steamers  operated  by  the  Euro¬ 
pean  Conference  are  given  preferential  consideration  in  their  trans¬ 
pacific  business,  if  not  held  in  line  by  rebate  on  cargoes  shipped  to 
Europe.  The  relations  of  this  conference  to  the  central  European 
control  are  not  definitely  known,  but  that  this  relation  is  a  close  one 
is  unquestionable.  The  lead  in  all  matters  of  common  interest  within 
this  conference  is  taken  by  the  Stoomvaart  Mij.  Nederland,  and  that 
company,  together  with  the  Rotterdamsche  Lloyd  and  Stoomvaart 
Mij.  Oceaan,  handle  the  bulk  of  the  business. 

DUTCH-BRITISH-NEW  YORK  CONFERENCE. 

This  is  a  combination  between  the  Rotterdamsche  Lloyd,  the 
Stoomvaart  Mij.  Nederland,  and  the  Stoomvaart  Mij.  Oceaan,  and 
was  spoken  of  as  “  a  conference  ”  by  the  Batavia  agent  of  the  Ocean 
Steamship  Co.  and  its  subsidiary,  the  Stoomvaart  Mij.  Oceaan.  It 
is  said  to  be  a  conference  without  rebates,  although  its  members  are 
also  members  of  the  European  Conference. 

COASTWISE  AND  FEEDER  SERVICES. 

The  coastwise  (or  interisland)  trade  of  the  Netherlands  Indies 
and  French  Indo-China  can  not  be  participated  in  by  American 
steamers,  as  the  Dutch  and  French  laws  reserve  the  right  to  restrict 
the  trade  to  steamers  of  countries  giving  similar  privileges  to  Dutch 
ships.  American  steamers,  however,  are  free  to  enter  the  coastwise 
trade  of  China  and  British  Malaya. 

At  present  there  are  12  United  States  Shipping  Board  steamers, 
of  approximately  3,500  tons  dead  weight  and  a  draft  of  about  24  feet 
each,  running  in  the  coastwise  trade  of  China  to  Hongkong  and  to 
ports  in  the  East  Indies.  Eight  of  these  are  operated  by  the  Pacific 
Mail  Steamship  Co.  and  four  by  the  Pacific  Steamship  Co.  (Admiral 
Line).  The  former  company’s  steamers  touch  (south  of  Hongkong) 
at  Haiphong,  Saigon,  Bangkok,  Singapore,  Port  Swettenham  (when 
cargo  offers),  Penang,  Rangoon,  and  Calcutta,  and  the  latter  com¬ 
pany’s  steamers  at  Haiphong,  Saigon,  Bangkok  (when  cargo  offers), 
Singapore,  Batavia,  Semarang,  and  Soerabaya.  These  lines  cover 
all  the  major  ports  of  the  district  under  consideration. 

While  these  may  be  called  feeder  lines,  they  are  so  only  to  a  small 
extent,  picking  up  cargo  for  transshipment  to  the  main  lines  at 
Singapore  or  Hongkong.  Their  principal  revenue  is  derived  from 
the  interport  trade. 

FEEDER  LINES. 

Some  feeder  lines  issue  through  bills  of  lading  to  the  world’s 
market  cities  and  also  from  those  ports  to  the  minor  ports,  thus 
giving  their  affiliated  lines  a  very  great  advantage  in  the  ocean  trade 
with  the  minor  ports  which  are  not  served  by  the  “  offshore  ”  steamers. 
There  is  very  little  local  trade  between  the  minor  ports. 

Singapore,  Soerabaya,  Semarang,  and  Batavia  are  the  only  regu¬ 
lar  ports  of  call  for  offshore  steamers.  If  American  feeder  services 
were  to  be  based  on  either  Soerabaya  or  Batavia  they  would  have 


TRANSPORTATION. 


63 


to  be  operated  under  the  Dutch  flag.  Manila  is  not  favorably  situ¬ 
ated  geographically  so  that  it  can  be  used  as  a  base  for  a  feeder 
service  for  offshore  steamers  operating  to  European  or  United  Spates 
Atlantic  ports,  in  view  of  the  competition  presented  and  its  distance 
from  producing  points.  By  this  process  of  elimination  the  port  of 
Singapore  is  shown  to  be  the  only  base  for  cargo  originating  south 
of  French  Indo-China. 

Feeder  services  are  operated  by  British- Chinese  companies  as 
follows : 

Bangkok ,  Singapore,  Penang ,  Rangoon ,  and  Calcutta . — All  or  a 
part  of  these  ports  are  served  by  the  Indo-China  Steam  Navigation 
Co.  (British)  ;  the  Borneo  Co.  (British)  ;  the  Seang  Line  of  Steam¬ 
ers  (British-Chinese)  ;  the  Ho  .Hong  Steamship  Co.  (British- 
Chinese) ;  Lim  Chwee  Chiang  (British-Chinese) ;  Straits  Steamship 
Co.  (British),  Singapore  to  Penang  only  and  Singapore  to  Bangkok 
only;  the  Eastern  Shipping  Co.  (British),  Singapore  to  Penang 
only;  Peninsula  &  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (British),  Singa¬ 
pore,  Penang,  Colombo,  etc.;  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
(British) ;  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  (Japanese)  ;  Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha 
(Japanese),  Singapore  to  Bangkok  only;  and  the  Siam  Steam  Navi¬ 
gation  Co.  (Siamese,  subsidiary  to  Alfred  Holt  &  Co.),  Singapore 
to  Bangkok  only;  also  by  the  steamers  of  the  United  States  Ship¬ 
ping  Board,  operated  by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co. 

Singapore ,  Batavia ,  Cheribon ,  Semarang ,  and  Soerabaya. — All  or 
a  part  of  these  ports  are  served  by  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart 
Maatschappij  (Dutch)  ;  Heap  Eng  Moh  Steamship  Co.  (British)  ; 
Chop  Aik  Liong  Chan  (British-Chinese),  Singapore  to  Soerabaya 
via  Borneo  ports;  Thong  Ek  &  Co.  (British-Chinese),  Singapore  to 
Soerabaya;  and  Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha  (Japanese).  Also  served  by 
steamers  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  operated  by  the 
Pacific  Steamship  Co.  (Admiral  Line). 

Singapore  to  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Residency. — The  principal 
port  is  Belawan  Deli  (the  port  of  Medan) ;  other  ports  where  steam¬ 
ers  of  light  draft  may  secure  or  deliver  cargo  are  Tandjoengbalai, 
Pangkalanbrandan,  and  Poelau  Sembilan.  This  route  is  served  by 
the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij  (Dutch) ;  Peninsular  & 
Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (British)  ;  and  Ocean  Steamship  Co. 

Singapore ,  Bandjermasin ,  Samarinda ,  and  Soerabaya ,  returning 
by  the  same  route . — This  route  is  served  by  Aik  Liong  Chan  (British- 
Chinese)  . 

Singapore  to  Pontianak  and  return. — Served  by  Thong  Ek  & 
Co.  (British-Chinese). 

Other  minor  routes  to  the  Dutch  possessions,  with  the  exception 
of  those  operated  by  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij,  are 
served  by  steamers  of  various  Chinese  companies.  They  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Singapore  to  Khio;  Singapore  to  Selatpandjang,  Bengkalis, 
and  Bagan;  Singapore  to  Pangkalpinang ;  Singapore  to  Singaradja, 
in  the  island  of  Bali,  calling  at  Billiton  and  Soerabaya. 

Before  restrictions  were  placed  on  the  shipment  of  rice  from 
Singapore  there  was  a  British-Chinese  line  operating  between  Singa¬ 
pore  as  far  east  as  Ternate  and  Ceram,  in  the  Moluccas,  and  the 
imports  of  rice  for  that  district  were  mostly  carried  by  this  line  from 
Singapore,  thus  giving  the  Singapore  merchants  a  strong  hold  on  the 


64  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

trade  of  that  part  of  the  Dutch  possessions.  All  the  British- Chinese 
lines  have  developed  out  of  the  needs  of  Singapore  merchants  for 
transportation  to  the  districts  in  which  they  are  financially  inter¬ 
ested,  and  these  lines  carry,  very  largely,  cargo  that  is  consigned  to 
the  steamship  owners. 

The  government  of  Sarawak  owns  the  controlling  interest  in  a  line 
operating  from  Singapore  to  Kuching,  in  Sarawak,  Borneo. 

The  Straits  Steamship  Co.  (British)  is  a  subsidiary  of  the 
Liverpool  firm  of  Alfred  Holt  &  Co.  (Blue  Funnel  Line).  This  is  a 
sister  company  of  the  Ocean  Steamship  Co.  and  the  Stoomvaart 
Maatschappij  Oceaan,  and  acts  as  a  feeder  for  those  lines  as  well  as 
providing  the  principal  interport  service  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula  from  Penang  to. Bangkok.  It  also  furnishes  serv¬ 
ice  from  Singapore  to  Miri  and  Labuan  (islands  between  Singapore 
and  the  north  coast  of  Borneo),  Jesselton,  Kudat,  and  Sandakan  (in 
British  North  Borneo),  and  Jolo  and  Zamboanga  (in  the  southern 
Philippines) . 

The  Siam  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (Siamese)  operates  out  of  Bang¬ 
kok,  between  that  port  and  Singapore,  and,  weather  permitting, 
calls  at  the  following  ports:  Kretay,  Trengganoe,  Bisut,  Semarak, 
Bacho,  Kelantan,  Tabi,  Bangnara,  Telupi,  Panarai,  Patani,  Singora, 
Lacon,  Bandon,  Kohsamui,  Languen,  Taku,  and  Chumpon. 

British- Chinese  lines  run  from  Singapore  to  the  following  ports: 
Malacca  and  Muar,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula ;  Treng¬ 
ganoe,  on  the  east  coast;  Batu  Pahat;  Cucob,  Pontain  Besar,  Pontain 
Kitchiel,  and  Benuit,  on  or  near  the  coast  of  Johore. 

POSSIBLE  ROUTES  FOR  FEEDER  SERVICES  IN  SUPPORT  OF  AMERICAN  MAIN 

LINES. 

The  Manila-Zamboanga  service  might  be  profitably  extended  to 
Singapore,  covering  the  following  ports  from  Zamboanga:  Jolo, 
Sandakan  (possibly  Jesselton  and  Kudat),  Labuan,  and  Singapore. 
The  success  of  this  line  in  the  additional  ports  would  depend  entirely 
on  the  strength  and  activity  of  the  American  commercial  institutions 
at  Singapore  and  Manila.  It  would  serve  the  steamers  loading  at 
Manila  for  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  steam¬ 
ers  loading  at  Singapore  for  Europe  and  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States. 

A  line  could  get  support,  provided  there  were  an  active  American 
business  organization  behind  it,  operating  from  Singapore  to  Pon- 
tianak  and  other  west  Borneo  ports,  Bandjermasin  and  other  south 
Borneo  port's,  Balikpapan  and  Samarinda  on  the  east  coast  of 
Borneo,  and  Menado  and  Macassar  in  Celebes,  returning  via  the  ports 
of  south  and  west  Borneo. 

Business  might  be  developed  for  a  line  running  out  of  Singapore 
to  ports  in  the  Riouw  Archipelago,  Banka  and  Billiton  (in  the  pepper 
season),  Palembang,  in  the  Dutch  residency  of  the  same  name,  and 
the  ports  in  the  Dutch  residencies  of  Djambi  and  Riouw,  on  the  main¬ 
land  of  Sumatra. 

The  line  from  Singapore  to  Belawan  Deli,  in  the  East  Coast  Resi¬ 
dency  of  Sumatra,  offers  the  best  prospect  for  early  development,  as 
that  district  is  a  large  and  well-developed  producer  of  raw  products. 


TRANSPORTATION. 


65 


The  routes  along  the  west  and  east  coasts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
including  the  ports  of  Muar,  Malacca,  Port  Dickson,  Port  Swetten- 
ham,  Telok  Anson,  and  Penang,  on  the  west,  and  the  ports  listed  as 
being  served  by  the  Siam  Steam  Navigation  Co.  on  the  east  coast, 
do  not  seem,  as  viewed  at  the  present  time,  to  offer  a  field  for  addi¬ 
tional  feeder  lines.  If  strong  and  active  American  commercial 
houses  become  established  in  Singapore  the  need  for  feeders  to  cover 
this  and  other  runs  may  develop. 

STEAMSHIP  SERVICES. 

The  following  pages  give  the  names  and  itineraries  of  steamship 
lines  calling  at  Singapore  and  at  Java  ports  as  of  June  1,  1921.  The 
Transportation  Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce  is  preparing  a  bulletin  on  steamship  services  from  United 
States  ports  which  will,  as  regards  lines^ operating  between  this  coun¬ 
try  and  the  East  Indies,  contain  more  recent  information  than  ap¬ 
pears  here.  For  a  picture  of  the  shipping  facilities  of  these  colonies 
as  a  whole,  however,  it  is  believed  that  the  list  here  given  is  sufficiently 
true  of  the  present  time  to  justify  its  publication. 

Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  (American).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Monthly  service  from  San  Francisco  to  Singapore,  New  York,  and  Balti¬ 
more  via  Colombo  and  Mediterranean  ports. 

Seven-weekly  service  from  Colombo  to  Calcutta,  Singapore,  Saigon,  Manila, 
Honolulu,  and  San  Francisco. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Shanghai  to  Swatow,  Hongkong,  Saigon,  Singa¬ 
pore,  Penang,  Rangoon,  and  Calcutta ;  also  calling  at  Haiphong,  Port 
Swettenham,  Moulmein,  and  Belawan  Deli  when  business  offers. 
Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Saigon,  Haiphong,  Hongkong, 
Batavia,  Semarang,  Soerabaya,  and  Balikpapan. 

Admiral  Line,  Pacific  Steamship  Co.  (American).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Monthly  service  (about)  from  Singapore  to  Seattle  direct. 

United  American  Lines  (Inc.)  (American).  Agents:  Guthrie  &  Co.  (Ltd.). 

Semimonthly  service  from  Java  ports  to  Singapore  and  New  York  via  Suez. 
Struthers  &  Dixon  (Inc.),  Green  Star  Line  (American).  Agents:  The  Green 
Star  Steamship  Agency  (S.  S.),  Ltd.  (British). 

Monthly  service  (about)  from  Singapore  to  New  York  via  Suez. 

The  Robert  Dollar  Co.  (American).  Steamers  operated  under  British  flag. 
Agents:  Own  office. 

Monthly  service  (about)  from  Singapore  to  New  York  via  North  China 
and  Panama,  also  via  Suez. 

Barber  Steamship  Lines  (American).  Agents:  The  Admiral  Line-Pacific 
Steamship  Co. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  London,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp. 
China  Mail  Steamship  Co.  (America).  Agents:  Francis  Peek  &  Co.  (Ltd.). 
Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Hongkong,  Japanese  ports,  Honolulu, 
and  San  Francisco. 

Ellerman  &  Bucknall  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents  :  McAlister  &  Co. 

Monthly  service  from  Hongkong  to  Manila,  Iloilo,  Singapore,  London,  Ant¬ 
werp,  Rotterdam,  and  Hamburg. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  New  York  and  Boston  via  Suez. 

Monthly  service  from  Batavia  to  Singapore,  Colombo,  Bombay,  Aden,  Port 
Sudan,  Port  Said,  and  Montreal. 

Ocean  Steampship  Company  (British).  Agents:  W.  Mansfield  &  Co. 

Weekly  service  (about)  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai  (Hankow),  Hong¬ 
kong  (Manila),  Singapore,  Port  Swettenham,  London;  or  Marseille, 
Havre,  Liverpool;  or  Genoa,  Marseille,  Liverpool;  or  London,  Amsterdam, 
Antwerp. 

Monthly  service  from  Hongkong  to  Manila,  Iloilo,  Singapore,  and  New  York 
via  Suez. 

Monthly  service  in  connection  with  the  West  Australian  Steam  Navigation 
Co.  from  Singapore  to  Freemantle. 

Semi  weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Belawan  Deli. 


66  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Peninsular  &  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (British).  Agents :  Own  branch. 
Fortnightly  mail  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singa¬ 
pore,  Marseille,  and  London  via  ports. 

Semimonthly  service,  Bombay-China  Line  from  Shanghai  to  Hongkong, 
Singapore,  Penang,  Colombo,  and  Bombay. 

British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (British),  subsidiary  to  the  Peninsular  & 
Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Co.  Agents :  Boustead  &  Co. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Port  Swettenham,  Penang,  Madras,  and 
Negapatam,  or  Pondicherry,  Cuddalore,  Karikal,  and  Negapatam. 
Fortnightly  service,  Bangkok  Line  from  Singapore  to  Bangkok. 

British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co.  Agents:  Peninsular  &  Oriental  Steam 
Navigation  Co. 

Weekly  service,  Singapore-Belawan  Line  from  Singapore  to  Belawan  Deli. 
Apgar  Line,  subsidiary  of  Peninsular  &  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
(British).  Agents:  Adamson,  Gilfilan  &  Co. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore, 
Penang,  Rangoon,  and  Calcutta,  calling  at  Swatow  and  Amoy. 

Ben  Line  Steamers  (British).  Agents:  Paterson,  Simons  &  Co. 

Irregular  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore,  and 
London  via  ports. 

Glen  and  Shire  Lines  (British)  ;  joint  service  of  steamers  of  these  two  lines. 
Agents :  Boustead  &  Co. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore, 
Genoa,  London,  Antwerp,  and  Rotterdam  via  ports. 

Prince  Line  (British).  Agents:  Adamson,  Qilfillan  &  Co. 

Irregular  service  from  Singapore  to  New  York  via  Suez  or  Panama. 

The  Dodwell  Line  (British).  Agents:  Paterson,  Simons  &  Co. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  New  York  via  Suez. 

Union  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Boustead  &  Co. 

Monthly  service  (about)  from  Singapore  via  Java  ports  to  Sydney,  Mel¬ 
bourne,  and  New  Zealand  via  Timor  Dilly. 

Straits  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Service  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Saturdays  from  Singapore  to  Penang 
via  Port  Swettenham. 

Weekly  service,  Saturday,  Singapore  to  Bangkok  direct. 

Thrice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Port  Swettenham  and  Telok 
Anson. 

Twice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Port  Dixon  and  Port  Swettenham. 
Five-times-a-week  service  from  Singapore  to  Malacca  and  Muar. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Mersing,  Kuala  Pahang,  and  Kuantan. 
Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Kelantan. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Meri,  Labuan,  Jesselton,  Kudat,  Sanda- 
kan,  Jolo,  and  Zamboanga. 

The  Borneo  Co.  (British).  Agents:  The  Borneo  Co. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Bangkok  to  Singapore,  Penahg,  Colombo,  and 
Bombay. 

The  Eastern  Shipping  Co.  (British).  Agents:  A.  van  Tooren. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Port  Swettenham  and  Penang. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Malacca. 

Sarawak  &  Singapore  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Ong  Ewe  Hai  &  Co. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Kuching,  Sarawak  (Borneo). 

Indo-China  Steamship  Navigation  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Boustead  &  Co. 
Weekly  service  from  Japan  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Penang, 
and  Calcutta. 

Ho  Hong  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Swatow  to  Amoy,  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Penang, 
and  Rangoon. 

Twice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Malacca  and  Muar. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Trengganoe. 

Ban  Heap  Hin  &  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Trengganoe. 

Ban  Lee  Ann  (Ltd.),  (British).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Semiweekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Malacca  and  Muar. 

Daily  service  from  Singapore  to  Cucob,  Pontain,  Besar,  Pontain  Kitchiel, 
and  Benuit. 

Daily  service  from  Singapore  to  Poelau  Bantan,  Poelau  Bulang,  and  Poelau 
Bintan. 


TRANSPORTATION 


67 


Soon  Kech  (Ltd.),  (British).  Agents:  Gaggino  &  Co. 

Service  three  times  a  week  from  Singapore  to  Malacca  and  Muar. 

Twice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Batu  Pahat. 

Wee  Bros.  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Selatpandjang,  Benkalis,  and  Bagan, 
calling  at  Dutch  islands  off  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra. 

(Chop)  Aik  Ling  Chan  (British).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Bandjermasin,  Samarinda,  and  Soer- 
abaya. 

Seng  Moh  &  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Service  four  times  a  week  from  Singapore  to  Biouw. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Selatpandjang,  Benkalis,  and  Bagan. 

Thong  Ek  &  Co.  Agents :  Own  offices. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Pontianak. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Soerabaya. 

Heap  Eng  Moh  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Twice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Batavia,  Cherbon,  and  Semarang. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Billiton,  Soerabaya,  and  Singaradja 
(Bali). 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Pangkalpinang. 

The  Seang  Line  Steamship  Co.  (British).  Agents:  Giong  Hoe  &  Co. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Shanghai  to  Swatow,  Hongkong,  Amoy,  Singapore, 
Penang,  and  Rangoon. 

Lim  Chwee  Chiang  (British).  Agents:  Own  offices. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Rangoon. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Trengganoe. 

Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij,  commonly  known  as  the  K.  P.  M. 
(Dutch).  Agents:  Own  office.  This  company  maintains  52  runs,  most  of 
which  are  within  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  The  lines  which  touch  at 
Singapore  or  Penang  are  as  follows : 

Semimonthly  service  from  Batavia  to  Telokbetong,  Padang,  Atjeh  ports, 
and  Penang. 

Semimonthly  service  from  Batavia  to  Padang,  Atjeh  ports,  and  Penang. 

Semimonthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Banka  and  Billiton. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Muntok  (Banka)  and  Palembang. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Djambi. 

Eight-day  service  from  Singapore  to  Rengat,  Prigi  Radja,  and  Riouw. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Belawan  Deli,  Batavia,  Semarang,  and 
Soerabaya. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Belawan  Deli  via  ports. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Tandjoengpandan  and  Tandjoengpinang. 

Thrice-monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Anambas  and  Natoena  Islands. 

Thrice-monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Pontianak,  Riouw,  and  Groot 
Tambelan. 

Thrice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Singkawang,  Selakau,  Pemangkot, 
and  Sambas. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Bawean,  Soerabaya,  Bandjermasin,  east 
coast  ports  of  Borneo,  Donggla,  and  Wani. 

Thrice-weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Bandjermasin. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Java  ports,  Macassar,  Balikpapan, 
Menado,  Sangir,  and  Talaud  Islands,  Gorontalo,  and  Tominibocht. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Java  ports,  Bali,  Lombok,  Soem- 
bawa,  Ambon,  and  Macassar. 

Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Nederland  (Dutch).  Agents:  Internationale  Cre- 
diet  en  Hdv.  Rotterdam. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Batavia  to  Soerabaya,  Semarang,  Singapore, 
Marseille,  Rotterdam,  and  Amsterdam  via  ports. 

Messageries  Maritimes  de  France  (French).  Agent:  Own  office. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Haiphong, 
Saigon,  Singapore,  and  Marseille  via  ports. 

Chargeurs  Reunis,  Admiral  Line  (French).  Agents:  Moine  Compte  &  Co. 

Irregular  service  from  Haiphong  to  Saigon,  Singapore,  Marseille,  Havre, 
Dunkirk,  and  Antwerp  via  ports. 

Oompagnie  de  Navigation  (French).  Agents:  Moine  Compte  &  Co. 

Irregular  service  from  Haiphong  to  Saigon,  Singapore,  and  Marseille  via 
ports. 

19878°— 23 - 6 


68 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Saigon  Steamship  Co.  (French).  Agents:  Thong  Hup  &  Co. 

Service  four  times  a  month  from  Singapore  to  Saigon. 

Yong  Guan  (French).  Agents:  Yong  Seng  Guan. 

Monthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Saigon. 

Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha  (Japanese).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Monthly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Saigon,  Singa¬ 
pore,  Marseille,  London,  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  Hamburg  via  ports. 

Monthly  service  (about)  running  from  Singapore  to  Java  ports,  Manila, 
Hongkong,  Shanghai,  Japan  ports,  San  Francisco,  and  New  York  via 
Panama. 

Monthly  service  (about)  from  Japan  ports  to  Hongkong,  Singapore, 
Colombo,  Mauritius,  Durban,  Cape  Town,  Buenos  Aires,  Santos,  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro. 

Intermediate  service  from  Calcutta  to  Singapore,  Hongkong,  Japan  ports, 
San  Francisco,  and  via  Panama,  New  Orleans,  Santiago,  and  Habana. 

Monthly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Java  ports,  Singapore,  and  Calcutta. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Colombo, 
and  Bombay. 

Monthly  service  from  Java  ports  to  Singapore,  Bangkok,  Saigon,  Haiphong, 
Hongkong,  Takaw,  and  Keelung. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Singapore  to  Bangkok,  Batavia,  Semarang,  and 
Soerabaya. 

Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  (Japanese).  Agents:  Own  office. 

Fortnightly  service  from  Yokohama  to  Kobe  (or  Moji  or  Nagasaki), 
Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Penang,  Colombo,  Suez,  Port  Said,  Mar¬ 
seille,  London,  and  Liverpool  (or  Antwerp). 

Auxiliary  service,  Liverpool  Line,  cargo  only,  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai, 
Hongkong,  Singapore,  Marseille,  and  Liverpool  via  ports. 

Auxiliary  service,  Hamburg  Line,  cargo  only,  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai, 
Hongkong,  Singapore,  London,  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  Hamburg  via 
ports. 

Monthly  service,  New  York  Line,  from  Japan  ports  to  Hongkong,  Singa¬ 
pore,  and  New  York  via  Suez. 

Two-monthly  service,  South  American  Line,  from  Japan  ports  to  Hongkong, 
Singapore,  Durban,  Cape  Town,  Buenos  Aires,  Santos,  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro. 

Fortnightly  service,  Bombay  Line,  cargo  only,  from  Japan  ports  to  Shang¬ 
hai,  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Penang,  and  Bombay. 

Fortnightly  service,  Calcutta  Line,  cargo  only,  Japan  ports  to  Hongkong, 
Penang,  Rangoon,  and  Calcutta. 

Ocean  Transport  Co.  (Japanese).  Agents:  Paterson,  Simons  &  Co. 

Semimonthly  service  from  Singapore  to  Seattle. 

Nanyo  Yusen  Kaisha.  Agents  at  Batavia:  Maclaine,  Watson  &  Co. 

Thrice-weekly  service  from  Kobe  to  Moji,  Hongkong,  and  Batavia,  return¬ 
ing  via  Semarang,  Soerabaya,  Macassar,  Balikpapan,  Hongkong,  and 
Moji. 

Navigazione  Generale  Italiana  (Italian).  Agents:  Societe  Commissionari a 
di  Exportazione  di  Importazione. 

Irregular  service  from  Shanghai  to  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Trieste,  and 
Venice  via  ports. 

Lloyd  Triestino  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (Italian).  Agents:  Societe  Commis¬ 
sionaria  di  Exportazione  di  Importazione. 

Monthly  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Singapore, 
Trieste,  and  Venice  via  ports. 

Compania  General  de  Tobacos  de  Filipinas  (Spanish).  Agents:  Barlow 
&  Co. 

Three- weekly  service  (about)  from  Manila  to  Singapore  and  Barcelona 
via  ports. 

Compania  Transatlantica  (Spanish).  Agents:  Barlow  &  Co. 

Three- weekly  service  (about)  from  Manila  to  Singapore  and  Barcelona 
via  ports. 

Ostasiatiske  Kompagni  (The  East  Asiatic  Co.)  (Danish).  Agents:. Own  office. 

Irregular  service  from  Japan  ports  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Saigon,  Singa¬ 
pore,  Marseille,  Aarhus,  and  Copenhagen  via  ports. 


TRANSPORTATION 


69 


Czechoslovak  Central  Economic  Commission  (Trieste-Vladivostok  Line). 

Agents:  Own  office. 

Irregular  service  from  Trieste,  Port  Said,  Aden,  Bombay,  Colombo,  Singa¬ 
pore,  Shanghai,  Moji,  and  Vladivostok. 

Siam  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (Ltd.)  (Siamese).  Agents:  Straits  Steamship  Co. 

Weekly  service  from  Singapore  to  Kretay,  Trengganoe,  Bisut,  Semarak, 
Bacho,  Kelantan,  Tabai,  Bangnara,  Telupui,  Panarai,  Patani,  Singora, 
Lacon,  Bandon,  Kohsamui,  Languen,  Taku,  Chumpon,  and  Bangkok. 

STEAMSHIP  LINES  OPERATING  THROUGH  JAVA  PORTS. 

The  companies  operating  lines  based  on  or  calling  at  Java  ports 
(excepting  those  listed  under  former  section)  on  June  1,  1921,  their 
agents,  and  the  normal  steamship  routings  were  as  follows : 

Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Nederland.  Agents:  Own  office,  Batavia. 

Fortnightly  mail  and  passenger  service  between  Amsterdam  and  Java  ports, 
calling  at  Southampton,  Lisbon,  Port  Said,  Suez,  Colombo,  Sabang,  Bela- 
wan  Deli,  and  Singapore. 

A  regular  cargo  service  from  Holland  to  the  Java  ports  calling  at  the  same 
ports  served  by  the  passenger  line  and  when  business  offers  at  Macassar, 
Balikpapan,  Menado,  and  minor  Java  and  Sumatra  ports. 

Rotterdam  Lloyd  (Dutch);  Agents:  Own  office,  Batavia. 

Fortnightly  mail  and  passenger  service  between  Netherlands  East  Indies 
ports  and  Rotterdam. 

Regular  cargo  service  between  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  Rotterdam. 

In  conjunction  with  Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Nederland,  regular  service 
is  maintained  between  Java  ports,  Rangoon,  and  Calcutta. 

Regular  lines  between  Hamburg,  Antwerp,  and  Java  ports. 

In  conjunction  with  the  Nederland- American  steamship  lines,  the  Stoom¬ 
vaart  Maatschappij  Nederland,  and  Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Oceaan, 
service  is  maintained  between  Java  ports  and  New  York. 

In  conjunction  with  Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Nederland  and  Java -China- 
Japan  line,  service  between  Java  ports  and  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 
America. 

The  Clan  Line  (British).  Agents  in  Batavia:  Pitcairn,  Syme  &  Co. 

Monthly  service  between  Java  ports  and  New  York. 

Nederlandsch  Stoomvaart  Maatschappij  Oceaan  (Dutch  subsidiary  to  Alfred# 

Holt  &  Co.,  British).  Agents:  Maclaine,  Watson  &  Co.,  Batavia. 

Weekly  service  from  Batavia,  Semarang,  and  Soerabaya  to  European  ports. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 

CHARACTER  OF  CULTIVATION. 


The  agricultural  effort  may  be  divided,  first,  into  products  of 
European-owned  estates  and  products  cultivated  by  the  natives, 
and,  second,  native  products  grown  primarily  for  domestic  consump¬ 
tion  and  native  products  grown  primarily  for  export. 

Products  of  European-owned  estates  are  sugar,  rubber,  coffee,  tea, 
cloves,  nutmegs  and  mace,  cassia  vera,  coconuts,  tobacco,  cinchona 
(Peruvian)  bark,  cacao,  coca,  cassava,  kapok,  manila  hemp,  sisal 
and  cantilla  fibers,  citronella  grass,  teak  wood,  gutta-percha,  and 
cananga. 

Products  grown  by  the  natives  primarily  for  domestic  consump¬ 
tion  are  rice,  Indian  corn,  various  legumes,  sago,  cassava,  and  indigo, 
and  those  grown  by  the  natives  primarily  for  export  are  coconuts, 
rubber,  coffee,  pepper,  cassia  vera,  nutmegs  and  mace,  cloves,  cubebs, 
cassia  fistula,  vanilla  beans,  cacao,  castor  beans,  sesame  seed,  peanut's, 
linseed,  kapok,  cotton,  citronella  grass,  patchouli  leaves,  palma  rosa, 
Java  tobacco,  hides,  skins,  and  horns. 

LAND  LAWS. 

%  The  land*  laws  vary  according  to  the  forms  of  local  government 
and  custom.  There  is  one  series  of  ordinances  regulating  the  leases 
of  Government  lands  in  Java  and  Madoera,  another  regulating  the 
lease  of  agricultural  land  from  the  natives  of  Java  and  Madoera, 
another  regulating  the  leasing  of  land  by  Europeans  in  the  Residen¬ 
cies  of  Soerakarta  and  Djokjakarta,  and  another  regulating  the 
holding  of  lands  in  the  self-governing  districts  outside  of  Java  and 
Madoera.  Copies  of  these  regulations  are  on  file  under  the  follow¬ 
ing  titles : 

Toelichting  op  de  Nieuwe  Grondhuurbepalingen  in  de  Gouvernementslanden 
op  Java  en  Madoera. 

Toelichting  de  Nadere  Voorzieningen  tot  Bescherming  van  de  GSconomische 
Belangen  der  Inlandsche  Bevolking  in  de  Cultuurcentra  op  Java  en  Madoera. 

Toelichting  der  Nieuwe  Regeling  Omtrent  de  Verkrijging  van  Gronden  voor 
Landbouwdoeleinden  in  de  Residentien  Soerakarta  en  Djokjakarta. 

Agrarische  Regelingen  voor  de  Zelfbesturende  Landschappen  in  de  Gewesten 
buiten  Java  en  Madoera  (with  partial  translations). 

CONTROL  OF  LAND. 

The  lands  in  Java  and  Madoera  are  nearly  all  under  cultivation. 
The  most  desirable  lands  outside  of  Java  and  Madoera  generally 
come  under  the  classification  of  “self-governing  districts  outside  of 
Java  and  Madoera.”  In  the  latter-named  districts  the  points  for 
first  consideration  by  American  companies  intending  to  obtain  land 
rights  are  as  follows: 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


71 


Grounds  belonging  to  the  Government  and  situated  outside  of  Java  and 
Madoera  at  request  can  be  granted  in  “  erfpacht  ”  by  the  Governor  General 
for  a  period  not  exceeding  75  years,  at  a  rent  of  at  most  1  florin  per  bouw 
(1  florin=$0.402  mint  par;  1  bouw=1.7537  acres),  due  in  the  sixth  year  after 
the  year  in  which  “  erfpacht  ”  has  been  registered. 

Only  the  following  classes  of  persons  or  companies  are  eligible  as 
“ erfpachters ” :  (a)  Subjects  of  the  Netherlands;  (b)  inhabitants 
of  the  Netherlands;  ( c )  inhabitants  of  Netherlands  India;  ( d )  com¬ 
panies  of  commerce  established  in  the  Netherlands  or  Netherlands 
India,  with  the  understanding  that  those  companies  or  persons  not 
having  their  seat  in  Netherlands  India  shall  be  duly  represented 
there. 

A  resident  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  is  a  person  of  any  nationality 
who  has  resided  in  the  colony  for  more  than  18  months  and  who  does 
not  leave  the  colony  for  more  than  1  year  at  a  time. 

The  land  laws  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  are  very  complicated, 
and  companies  about  to  invest  in  land  in  the  colony  will  find  it  to 
their  advantage  to  make  a  thorough  study  not  only  of  the  laws  and 
amendments  but  of  the  decisions  of  the  courts. 

In  order  to  sell  American  agricultural  machinery  and  supplies  it 
is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  problems  that  confront  the 
agriculturists.  Investigations  of  the  methods  of  cultivation  were 
made  entirely  from  that  point  of  view. 

SUGAR. 

The  extension  of  sugar  areas  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  depends 
first  on  the  extension  of  irrigation  works,  and  in  an  almost  equal  de¬ 
gree  on  the  development  of  mechanical  cultivation.  Lands  most 
suited  to  the  growing  of  cane  are  already  under  cultivation,  and 
any  new  areas  will  have  disadvantages  which  will  either  be  offset 
by  cheaper  methods  or  the  differences  deducted  from  the  profits. 
Planters  in  Java  have  prided  themselves  on  a  high  production  per 
bouw  (1  bouw =1.7537  acres)  and  claim  to  have  solved  many  of  their 
plant-disease  problems  by  careful  preparation  of  the  soil  and  indi¬ 
vidual  attention  to  the  plants. 

The  ideal  sugar  climate  is  one  which  has  a  marked  dry  season 
with  plenty  of  rain  during  the  growing  season  or  an  equivalent  in 
irrigation  water.  In  the  Dutch  East  Indies  these  conditions  are  most 
nearly  approximated  in  central  and  eastern  Java,  the  sugar  estates 
all  lying  between  6°  40'  and  8°  20'  south  of  the  Equator.  As  the 
Equator  is  approached  the  seasons  are  less  marked,  and  therefore 
less  suited  theoretically  for  the  growth  of  cane.  Restrictive  regula¬ 
tions  preclude  the  enlargement  of  areas  under  sugar  in  Java,  where 
labor  is  easily  obtained  and  climatic  and  soil  conditions  are  most 
nearly  right.  It  is  thought  that  only  by  cultivation  in  large  units 
in  the  Outer  Possessions  can  the  acreage  be  extended,  and  only  by  the 
use  of  machinery.  As  American  tractors  have  proven  satisfactory 
in  many  respects  for  the  work  that  will  be  involved,  it  is  hoped  that 
they  will  solve  the  problem  presented,  both  in  clearing  the  land 
cheaply  and  in  the  subsequent  cultivation. 

In  southern  Borneo,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Martapoera,  there  are 
said  to  be  areas  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  and  also  in  south¬ 
ern  Celebes  and  in  northern  Sumatra,  but  the  planters  will  have  to 
depend  on  imported  labor. 


72 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


Sugar  ports  and  location  of  sugar  mills  in  Java. 


agricultural  products. 


73 


The  sugar  estates  are  operated  by  the  same  company  organization 
that  owns  the  factories  milling  the  crop.  For  the  purpose  of  carry¬ 
ing  on  experimental  and  research  work  all  the  companies  have  com¬ 
bined  under  an  organization  called  the  Suiker  Syndicate,  with  of¬ 
fices  in  Soerabaya.  The  syndicate  maintains  a  “  proof  station,”  or 
experimental  station,  at  Pasoeroean  for  the  study  of  agricultural 
problems  and  another  at  Semarang,  where  mechanical  and  chemical 
problems  are  studied. 

HISTORY  OF  SUGAR  CULTIVATION  IN  JAVA. 

During  the  years  of  Government  cultivation  (up  to  1878)  there 
was  a  very  low  production  of  cane  per  bouw  (1  bouw=1.7537  acres), 
and  very  little  progress  in  cultivation  was  made.  The  most  notable 
incident  in  the  sugar  industry  during  those  years  was  the  discovery 
of  the  comparatively  high  production  from  the  cane  known  then  and 
since  as  the  u  black  Cheribon.”  Before  1850  several  varieties  of 
native  Java  cane  were  planted.  After  that  year  an  attempt  was 
made  to  get  a  uniform  planting  of  one  of  these  varieties.  When  the 
black  Cheribon  was  planted  generally  throughout  the  island  a  higher 
level  of  production  was  attained. 

In  1878  the  Government  announced  that  within  13  years  (by  1891) 
it  would  abandon  its  monopoly  of  the  cultivation  of  cane.  Some 
private  mills  were  already  in  operation  in  that  year,  milling  cane 
grown  by  the  Government,  and  from  some  small  areas  they  were 
cultivating  under  special  permission.  The  improvement  in  methods 
brought  about  by  the  private  planters  was  soon  apparent,  but  many 
problems  had  to  be  encountered  before  a  higher  production  level  was 
safely  reached. 

In  1882  the  “  sereh  ”  or  “  zeefvaten  ”  disease  developed  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  threatened  the  life  of  the  culture.  In  1886  the  mill 
owners  formed  an  association  to  study  and  combat  this  disease,  and 
they  partly  overcame  it  by  establishing  nurseries  in  the  mountains 
from  which  bebits  were  conveyed  to  the  lowlands  after  being  disin¬ 
fected.  The  first  work  of  this  association  was  to  establish  an  experi¬ 
ment  station,  and  during  the  first  few  years  the  scientific  staff  of  this 
station  devoted  most  of  its  time  to  studying  the  more  obvious  and 
destructive  of  the  diseases. 

While  climatic  conditions  caused  a  considerable  variation  in  the 
production  percentage  from  year  to  year,  the  study  and  importation 
of  the  varieties  of  cane  grown  by  the  natives  in  other  islands  of  the 
archipelago  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  canes  that  were  more  suited 
to  the  various  lands  of  Java,  and  this  caused  a  rise  to  a  still  higher 
level,  reaching  about  100  piculs  per  gross  bouw  (about  13,600 
pounds  to  1.7537  acres)  during  the  period  from  1898  to  1903.  Ex¬ 
periments  with  seedlings  began  in  1888,  and  in  1894  two  varieties 
were  developed  that  by  1904  began  to  show  their  influence  on  pro¬ 
duction.  These  wrere  No.  100  P.  O.  J.  (Proefstation  Oost  Java)  and 
No.  247B,  the  latter  developed  by  a  private  planter  with  the  aid  of 
the  proof  station.  In  that  year  production  reached  115  piculs  to 
the  bouw,  establishing  a  new  production  level.  Since  then  there 
have  been  two  particularly  bad  years  in  production — 1915  and  1919. 
In  the  former  year,  on  account  of  the  extremely  dry  season,  with  bad 
distribution  of  the  scarce  rainfall  over  the  months  of  the  year,  pro- 


74  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

duction  dropped  to  100.3  piculs  per  bouw.  Since  then  other  seedling 
varieties  of  cane  have  been  introduced  which  have  been  planted 
extensively,  and,  with  practically  the  same  climatic  conditions  as  in 
1913,  the  1919  crop  gave  an  average  production  of  111.5  piculs  per 
bouw.  The  best  new  variety  was  planted  in  1916  on  1  per  cent  of 
the  total  area  planted  with  cane.  In  the  1920  crop  it  reached  32  per 
cent  of  the  total  cane  planted. 

As  mentioned  above,  in  the  early  years  of  the  sugar  planters’  asso¬ 
ciation  the  first  object  was  to  provide  against  the  sereh  disease,  and 
this  has  been  finally  accomplished,  not  only  by  transplanting  bebits 
from  the  mountain  nurseries  but  by  developing  varieties  immune 
against  this  disease;  in  fact,  the  botanists  succeeded  in  developing 
immune  varieties  in  the  early  years,  but  these  did  not  at  first  give  the 
high  yield  which  Java  required.  In  the  later  years  the  combination 
of  immunity  and  high  yield  was  accomplished.  Besides  these  immune 
varieties  other  very  high  producing  varieties  were  bred  by  private 
planters. 

During  these  years  the  “  E.  K.  28  ”  and  the  “  E.  K.  2  ”  have  proven 
their  worth  to  the  planters,  and  large  areas  are  being  planted  with 
these  varieties.  Others  are  the  “  D.  L  52,”  the  “  S.  W.  3,”  the  “  Tjep. 
24,”  and  the  “  90F.”  The  first  of  these  has  an  exceptionally  high 
sugar  content.  It  is  no  usual  thing  to  find  two  or  three  varieties  of 
cane  planted  in  one  field,  in  order  to  get  the  best  out  of  the  varying 
conditions  of  the  soil.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  investigations 
now  under  way  is  the  planting  of  the  right  cane  on  the  right  field. 
This  is  the  basis  of  the  experiment  station’s  program.  Every  year 
about  500  field  experiments  are  made  in  Java  in  the  effort  to  accom¬ 
plish  this  purpose  with  the  greatest  accuracy. 

When  the  wet  season  continues  with  heavy  rains  until  June  the 
result  will  be  a  loss  of  about  10  piculs  per  bouw,  while  an  early  dry 
season  will  result  in  an  even  greater  loss.  Planters  like  to  see  the 
rain  come  up  slowly  in  October  and  stop  in  April  or  the  1st  of  May. 

SYSTEM  OF  LAND  LEASING  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

When  a  company  wishes  to  erect  a  sugar  mill  it  first  applies  to  the# 
Government  for  a  concession  of  land  for  the  cultivation  of  cane. 
The  £rst  consideration  given  by  the  Government  is  as  to  whether 
there  is  sufficient  water  for  the  new  industry  and  to  leave  an  ample 
supply  for  the  native  “  sawahs,”  or  rice  fields.  If  there  is  insufficient 
water  the  concession  is  not  granted. 

A  concession  when  granted  gives  the  company  exclusive  right  to 
rent  land  for  sugar-cane  cultivation  from  the  natives  within  the  limits 
of  the  concession,  and  the  negotiations  are  often  carried  on  with  the 
“dessa”  (township)  as  a  body.  Before  1919  the  period  of  the  lease 
was  generally  12  years,  but  in  that  year  a  new  regulation  was  made, 
called  “  Grondhuurordonnantie  ”  (ground  hire  ordinance).  By  this 
ordinance  any  person  is  free  to  make  contracts  up  to  three  years,  but 
when  a  longer  lease  is  to  be  made  the  Government  fixes  the  minimum 
rental.  These  contracts  may  run  up  to  21  years.  As  a  rule  they  do 
not  include  all  agricultural  land  within  the  granted  area,  but  usually 
less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  total  “  sawah  ”  surface.  There  are  many 
lands  which  the  natives  will  not  yield  to  the  sugar  planter;  some 
places  are  holy  ground;  other  lands  are  unfit  for  cane  because  the 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


75 


soil  is  not  good  or  because  the  area  is  too  small  to  be  cultivated 
economically.  In  the  hill  sections  of  the  island  the  percentage  of 
available  land  is  even  less. 

According  to  the  Government  regulations  the  company  can  not 
keep  the  land  from  the  natives  more  than  18  months  out  of  each  3 
years,  and  this  means  that  but  one  crop  of  cane  in  every  3  years  may 
be  harvested  from  a  field.  Beginning  with  the  cane  planted  in  1917, 
the  cycle  of  cultivation  varies  but  slightly  from  the  following :  April, 
1917,  to  October,  1918,  cane;  November,  1918,  to  April,  1919,  rice; 
April,  1919,  to  October,  1919,  polowidjo  (all  other  crops  than  rice 
and  cane,  such  as  corn,  beans,  cassava,  etc.) ;  October,  1919,  to  April, 
1920,  rice ;  April,  1920,  to  October,  1921,  cane. 

It  requires  about  13  months  for  a  crop  of  sugar  cane  to  mature  in 
Java,  so  the  planting*  begins  about  a  month  earlier  than  the  milling, 
which  starts  during  May  and  lasts  into  October.  Though  legally  the 
factories  may  keep  the  cropped  lands  to  the  moment  of  the  expiration 
of  the  contract,  as  a  rulo  they  are  turned  over  to  the  natives  imme¬ 
diately  the  cane  is  harvested.  By  close  figuring  it  is  possible  in  some 
districts  to  get  three  crops  of  rice  and  one  of  cane  in  three  years, 
besides  a  crop  of  polowidjo  in  the  first  year. 

SUGAR-CANE  CULTIVATION. 

The  sugar  planters  of  Java  take  over  the  land  from  the  natives 
for  a  period  of  18  months,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  it  must 
be  returned  to  them.  The  unit  of  cultivation  is  the  plant  until  the 
growth  is  well  up,  and  the  intensive  care  given  is  said  to  be  the 
reason  for  the  lack  of  serious  plant  diseases.  It  is  feared  that  the 
extensive  use  of  machinery  will  involve  the  development  of  plant 
diseases,  the  combating  of  which  may  prove  to  be  very  expen¬ 
sive.  The  description  of  the  cultivation  of  sugar  in  Java  is  given 
to  show  American  manufacturers  of  agricultural  implements  the 
methods  that  will  be  supplanted  if  the  use  of  agricultural  machin¬ 
ery  becomes  general  in  this  industry. 

The  process  of  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  which  follows  is  for 
the  greater  part  of  Java  soils  where  no  plowing  is  done.  Plow¬ 
ing  is  done  only  on  the  lighter  sandy  soils.  There  are  many  small 
variations  in  details.  Following  are  the  operations: 

First  operation. — The  clearing  of  the  ground  of  the  rice  straw 
from  the  preceding  crop  of  rice  is  the  first  operation  in  preparing 
the  land  for  the  cultivation  of  sugar.  This  rice  straw  is  cut  and 
placed  in  piles  or  rows,  where  it  is  burned.  Some  attempt  has 
been  made  to  do  this  work  mechanically,  but  that  method  is  not 
at  all  common. 

Second  operation. — Drainage  ditches  are  then  made,  the  first  and 
deepest  ones  being  called  “kliling,”  the  Javanese  word  for  “all 
around.”  These  ditches  vary  from  18  to  30  inches  in  depth,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  topography  of  the  country  and  the  depth  of  the  cane 
rows,  and  are  cut  generally  24  inches  wide  from  top  to  bottom. 
They  connect  with  the  Government-owned  irrigation  ditches,  from 
which  the  water  supply  is  drawn  and  in  which  the  drainage  water 
is  carried  away. 

Third  operation. — The  “moedjoer”  ditches  are  then  made.  These 
run  in  the  direction  the  cane  rows  are  to  be  planted,  generally  from 


76 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


north  to  south,  extending  through  the  field  and  connecting  at  each 
end  with  the  kliling  ditches.  The  depth  is  somewhat  less  than  that 
of  the  kliling,  and  the  distance  between  depends  on  the  quality  of 
the  soil  and  the  quantity  of  water  which  has  to  be  carried  off. 
Where  there  is  a  heavy,  clayey  soil  they  are  approximately  100 
to  120  feet  apart  (25  to  30  rows),  and  in  the  lighter  soils  a  greater 
distance  is  left  between,  sometimes  as  much  as  220  feet.  The  prac¬ 
tice  of  drying  the  soil  that  has  become  somewhat  sour  by  standing 
under  water  during  the  rice  season  varies  according  to  its  con¬ 
dition,  but  some  time  is  always  given  for  it  to  dry  before  proceed¬ 
ing  with  the  cultivation. 

Fourth  operation. — The  u  malang  ”  ditch  is  a  cross  ditch  between 
the  moedjoers  and  cuts  the  cane  rows  at  right  angles.  These  ditches 
are  from  24  to  30  feet  apart  in  the  heavy  soils  and  may  be  as  much 
as  48  feet  apart  in  the  lighter  soils.  The  drainage  units  or  “  kottaks  ” 
range,  therefore,  from  24  by  100  feet  to  approximately  48  by  220 
feet.  The  malang  ditches  are  not  so  deep  as  the  moedjoers. 

Fifth  operation. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  cane  is  the 
next  operation.  There  are  many  systems  of  doing  this,  all  designed 
to  expose  the  soil  to  the  air  as  much  as  possible.  A  very  large  part 
of  the  sugar  cane  in  Java  is  grown  in  the  lowlands,  where  the  soil 
is  more  or  less  heavy.  It  is  cut  from  the  ditches  in  blocks  and  re¬ 
quires  considerable  time  to  dry,  so  that  it  can  be  broken  to  a  powder. 

Sometimes  the  ditches  are  dug  “  two  spades  deep,”  or  approxi¬ 
mately  twice  9  inches,  and  when  this  is  done  it  means  that  the  whole 
drainage  system  must  be  in  accordance  with  the  maximum  depth  of 
the  cane  ditch;  this  also  depends  on  the  level  of  the  subsoil  water. 
As  the  rice  harvesting  begins  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  cane 
planting,  labor  is  generally  hard  to  get,  and  many  compromises  are 
made  in  order  to  balance  the  labor  supply  with  the  best  possible  soil 
conditions.  The  distance  between  centers  of  rows  is  from  3  to  5 
feet,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  variety  of  the 
cane  planted,  and  the  width  of  ditch  from  20  to  30  inches  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom.  The  object  in  using  this  form  of  ditch  is  to 
expose  as  much  soil  as  possible  to  the  air,  and  as  it  is  taken  out  it  is 
piled  on  the  intervening  land,  called  locally  the  “  goeloetan.”  When 
the  ditch  is  to  be  two  spades  deep  the  first  is  allowed  to  lie  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  air  for  five  or  six  daj^s  before  the  second  one  is 
taken  out.  If  the  time  and  season  permit  there  is  a  period  of  30 
days  during  which  the  soil  is  allowed  to  dry,  as  the  oxygen  in  the 
air  must  enter  the  wet  blocks  of  soil.  When  but  one  “  spade  ”  has 
been  taken  out  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  worked  over 
with  a  patchoel  (the  heavy  hoe  used  in  this  colony),  which  opera¬ 
tion  is  called  “kebroesan,”  or  with  a  four-tined  fork,  the  “tjong- 
kok”  method.  In  the  more  sandy  soils  the  ditch  is  made  narrower 
with  a  correspondingly  wide  goeloetan  to  hold  the  looser  earth.  Al¬ 
most  everywhere  in  Java  before  planting  some  prepared  soil  is 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  planting  ditch.  This  soil  may  be  taken 
from  the  vertical  sides  of  the  ditch  or  from  the  top  of  the  goeloetans 
or  from  both ;  it  is  always  soil  that  has  been  exposed  for  a  long  time 
to  sun  and  air. 

Sixth  operation. — During  the  time  after  the  ground  is  first  turned 
until  the  “  bebits  ”  or  cuttings  are  finally  planted  the  soil  is  carefully 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS.  77 

weeded,  so  that  when  the  planting  begins  the  ground  is  entirely  free 
from  weeds. 

Seventh  operation. — A  heavy  irrigation  is  given  the  ditches  before 
planting,  so  that  the  ground  is  thoroughly  moist  when  the  planting 
takes  place. 

Eighth  operation. — When  feeding  the  soil  with  bean  cake,  phos¬ 
phates,  molasses,  or  filter-press  cake,  these  are  worked  into  the  soil 
some  time  before  planting,  a  month  in  the  case  of  the  molasses  and 
about  a  week  when  the  other  fertilizers  are  being  used.  Molasses 
is  sometimes  given  to  the  rice  fields  (sawah).  It  works  beneficially 
on  the  rice  and  on  the  cane  afterwards. 

Ninth  operation. — Planting  takes  place  from  May  to  August  and 
is  done  with  the  greatest  care,  but  most  of  it  is  done  in  June,  July, 
and  August.  The  soil  is  thoroughly  powdered  and  the  bottom  shaped 
into  a  shallow  V,  in  the  lower  part  of  which  the  bebit  is  placed 
lengthwise  of  the  ditch  and  with  just  enough  soil  to  cover  it.  Usu¬ 
ally  the  distance  from  center  to  center  of  the  bebits  is  from  15  to  18 
inches,  but  sometimes  in  the  lighter  and  very  fertile  soils  they  are  as 
much  as  24  inches  apart.  On  both  ends  of  every  row  between  the 
malangs  an  extra  bebit  is  planted  as  a  reserve  (for  replanting  the 
dead  ones).  If  the  bebits  are  from  the  nurseries  they  have  two  to 
three  budding  joints,  but  if  they  are  cut  from  .the  tops  of  growing 
cane  they  may  have  as  many  as  five  budding  joints,  or  “eyes.” 

Tenth  operation. — Weeding  goes  on  continuously  and  with  the 
greatest  care  while  the  cane  is  sprouting,  and  the  soil  on  the  goeloe- 
tans  also  is  kept  clean  of  weeds.  In  the  first  weeks  after  planting 
the  soil  is  several  times  lightly  irrigated  at  short  intervals  (about 
three  days) ;  gradually  the  intervals  become  longer.  Much  depends 
on  the  proper  application  of  water  during  the  first  month,  and 
great  care  is  given  to  this  operation. 

Eleventh  operation. — Twenty  days  after  planting  all  the  rows  are 
carefully  examined  and  those  bebits  that  have  not  sprouted  and  the 
weak  young  plants  are  taken  out  and  replaced  by  the  reserves  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  ninth  operation. 

Twelfth  operation. — The  first  feeding  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
takes  place  immediately  after  the  replanting  is  done.  Women  are 
employed  in  this  work,  one  making  a  hole  with  a  pointed  stick  within 
2  inches  of  the  middle  of  the  bebit;  a  second  puts  in  the  manure,  a 
third  closes  the  hole,  and  a  fourth  pours  water  on  it.  If  the  bebit 
is  planted  on  the  15th  of  June,  this  first  feeding  would  take  place 
about  the  7th  of  July. 

Thirteenth  operation. — Following  these  dates,  on  about  the  1st 
of  August  additional  soil  is  given  the  young  plants  from  the  goeloe- 
tan  or  from  the  sides  of  the  ditch. 

Fourteenth  operation. — At  this  time  the  second  feeding  of  sul¬ 
phate  of  ammonia  is  given  to  the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  de¬ 
scribed  above. 

Fifteenth  operation. — On  September  1  more  soil  is  given  to  the 
plants,  which  are  now  growing  rapidly.  If  a  third  feeding  of  ma¬ 
nure  is  required,  it  is  given  at  this  time. 

Light  irrigation  has  been  going  on  continuously,  generally  at  six 
or  seven  day  intervals,  and  the  ground  is  kept  free  from  weeds. 
Whether  it  is  possible  to  go  on  with  irrigation  during  the  months  of 


78  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

September  and  October  depends  on  the  quantity  of  water  allowed 
by  the  Government  irrigation  service.  The  natives  also  require 
water  for  food  plants. 

Sixteenth  operation. — When  the  rains  begin  the  ground  is  leveled 
off  and  gradually  piled  up  against  the  cane. 

As  the  crop  develops  differences  of  condition  are  noticed,  and 
water  is  fed  more  liberally  to  those  parts  showing  the  least  progress. 
Economy  of  water  is  practiced  as  much  as  possible  so  as  to  adapt 
the  plants  to  a  small  quantity  of  water  during  the  driest  month. 

During  all  these  operations  the  ditches  are  silting  up,  and  these 
have  to  be  kept  deef)  enough  to  carry  away  the  heavy  rains  of  the 
wet  season. 

From  three  to  four  months  after  planting  there  is  sufficient  shade 
to  kill  any  weeds  that  might  sprout,  but  if  the  planting  is  “wide,” 
as  in  the  lighter  soils,  weeding  must  continue  longer.  The  weeding 
is  one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  cultivation  charges,  but  money  spent  for 
this  purpose  is  considered  well  spent.  One  of  the  finest  plantations, 
situated  on  soil  recently  reclaimed  from  the  jungle,  has  given  figures 
for  seven  “  gardens,”  or  fields,  which  show  an  average  weeding  charge 
of  41.77  florins  (1  florin=$0.402  mint  par)  per  bouw,  or  approxi¬ 
mately  $9  per  acre,  while ’26  florins  per  bouw  is  given  as  a  fair 
average  for  the  plantations  in  districts  that  have  been  cultivated  for 
rice  for  a  long  period. 

COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  SUGAR. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  in  costs  of  production  for  the  various 
mills  throughout  Java,  due  to  many  causes,  chief  of  which  are  the 
proximity  to  the  port  of  export,  variations  in  the  cost  of  labor,  varia¬ 
tions  in  the  rental  of  lands,  variations  in  the  productivity  of  the 
land  (whether  the  land  can  produce  from  “bebits”  taken  from  the 
growing  cane  or  if  they  must  be  brought  from  the  mountain  nur¬ 
series)  ,  and  differences  in  organization  and  management.  No  figures 
of  average  costs  can  be  obtained.  Various  published  estimates  exist, 
but  they  are  based  on  individual  judgment  rather  than  on  actual 
figures,  and  the  following  are  given  as  rough  estimates  by  the  best 
authorities  available.  The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  before  the 
war  some  of  the  best-equipped  factories  produced  Superior  sugar 
as  low  as  4.50  florins  per  picul  (136  pounds),  exclusive  of  interest  on 
capital.  One  of  the  largest  mills^  owning  the  land  on  wThich  its  cane 
is  grown,  gave  the  cost  of  its  1919  crop  delivered  to  the  station  of 
the  port,  ready  for  shipment,  as  6.02  florins,  not  including  capital 
charge.  Another,  less  favorably  situated  and  organized  but  more 
representative  of  the  wThole  industry,  gave  its  cost  for  that  crop  as 
8.83  florins,  not  including  capital  charge.  There  are  manv  reasons 
why  the  mills  should  withhold  their  production  costs,  and  these 
statements  should  be  taken  with  reservations. 

There  has  recently  been  a  considerable  increase  in  costs  of  labor, 
statements  of  cost  varying  so  widely  that  they  are  worthless.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  planters  to  keep  the 
real  facts  from  the  Government,  which  has  placed  increased  taxes 
on  the  industry.  On  August  13, 1921,  one  of  the  most  reliable  bank¬ 
ing  authorities  placed  the  maximum  cost  at  7  florins  per  picul  of 
136  pounds,  exclusive  of  capital  charge. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


79 


CULTIVATION  COSTS  OF  A  SUGAR  ESTATE. 

One  of  the  largest  and  best-equipped  estates  producing  sugar  in 
Java  has  furnished  figures  on  the  production  per  bouw  (1.7537  acres). 
On  this  estate,  in  section  1,  containing  37,289  bouws,  the  cost  per 
bouw  was  129.73  florins;  section  2,  containing  57,087  bouws,  168.16 
florins  per  bouw ;  section  8,  containing  44,000  bouws,  153.84  florins  per 
bouw;  section  9,  containing  46,141  bouws,  150.88  florins  per  bouw; 
section  10,  containing  54,019  bouws,  166.92  florins  per  bouw;  section 
11,  containing  53,039  bouws,  162.97  florins  per  bouw ;  and  section  12, 
containing  62,333  bouws,  179.38  florins  per  bouw.  The  production 
costs  of  this  estate  are  among  the  lowest  in  Java,  but  they  are  not 
representative  of  those  of  other  estates,  for  many  reasons.  This 
estate  was  reclaimed  from  the  jungle  and  is  held  under  a  long  lease 
direct  from  the  Government.  It  has  virgin  soil,  and  for  this  reason 
its  weeding  charge  is  much  higher  than  the  average,  while  its  charge 
for  fertilizer  is  low.  The  maximum  carry  of  the  cane  to  the  railway 
is  50  meters,  after  which  it  is  handled  mechanically.  Its  large, 
well-equipped  mill  is  capable  of  producing  sugar  from  the  cane  at  an 
exceptionally  low  cost  per  picul  (1  picul  =  136  pounds). 

The  following  figures  give  the  production  of  this  plantation  from 
1906  (the  first  production  year)  to  1919.  In  1912  the  plantation 
produced  more  cane  than  the  mill  could  handle,  so  the  following 
year  the  planted  area  was  decreased,  and  after  that  year  the  milling 
season  gradually  reached  normal,  i.  e.,  May  to  October.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  young  land  .does  not  produce  cane  with  a  high  percentage  of 
sugar,  which  explains  the  low  extraction  of  the  earlier  years. 

[Java  picul =136  pounds;  1  bouw=1.7537  acres.] 


1906. 

1907 

1908. 

1909 

1910. 

1911. 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 


Number 

ofbouws. 

Production 
of  cane. 

Cane  per 
bouw. 

Sug&rper 

bouw. 

Total  of 
sugar. 

Extrac¬ 

tion. 

Milling  period. 

Started. 

Ended. 

30 

87 

150 

1,711 

3,693 

5,137 

6,004 

4,565 

4,739 

4,631 

4,791 

4,880 

5,115 

4,935 

Piculs. 

« 

C1) 

0) 

1,066,000 

3,656,000 

6,375,000 

7,019,000 

4,268,000 

5,350,000 

5,729,000 

6,621,000 

5,517,800 

6,417,434 

6,321,397 

Piculs. 

(}) 

0 

(l) 

623 

990 

1,241 

1,169 

935 

1,129 

1,237 

1,382 

1,131 

1,255 

1,281 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Per  cent. 

32.0 

57.0 

69.0 

60.0 

75.0 

93.0 

82.0 

110.0 

98.0 

135.9 

122.5 

54, 800 

210.500 

354.500 
360, 206 
342,400 

440.700 

379.700 
527,000 
477, 600 
694,922 
604,399 

5.20 

5. 70 
5.60 

5.20 
8.00 

8.20 

6.70 
8.00 

8. 70 
10.80 

9. 56 

June  1 
Apr.  3 
Apr.  9 
May  1 
May  31 
May  29 
May  19 
May  16 
May  15 
May  7 
May  10 

Oct.  6 
Jan.  24 
Jan.  11 
Jan.  29 
Nov.  24 
Dec.  2 
Dec.  10 
Nov.  30 
Oct.  12 
Oct.  28 
Oct.  27 

1  Experimental  planting. 

Areas  planted  in  sugar  cane  from  1913  to  1921  are  given  in  the 
following  table.  The  figures  were  furnished  by  the  Sugar  Syndicate, 
except  those  for  the  crop  years  1920-21  and  1921-22,  which  were 
taken  from  Government  reports.  There  is  a  discrepancy  in  the 
official  figures,  and  all  the  figures  should  be  taken  as  approximate 
only. 


80 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


[1  bouw=l  .7537  acres;  1  picul=l  36  pounds.] 


Crop  year. 

Bouws. 

Acres. 

Total  pro¬ 
duction  of 
cane. 

Average 

extrac¬ 

tion. 

Average 
produce 
"tion  of 
sugar  per 
gross 
bouw. 

1913-14 . 

207,800 

213,013 

364,418 

373,561 

389,011 

396,480 

402,984 

340,177 

385,186 

317,773 

328,755 

Piculs. 

245,952,228 

245,020,090 

233,359,258 

263,045,062 

280,979,315 

257,160,606 

Per  cent. 
9. 78 

Piculs. 

116.00 

1914-15 . 

9. 34 

109. 45 

1915-16 . . 

221,823 

9. 29 

100.30 

1916-17 . : . 

226,082 

10. 33 

118. 99 

1917-18 . 

229; 781 
193,977 
219, 642 

10. 46 

130. 49 

1918-19 . 

10.88 

125.29 

1919-20 . 

111.50 

1920-21 . 

181,202 

1921-221 . 

1-87;  464 

1  Area  planted  up  to  the  end  of  September,  1921. 

The  following  figures,  which  are  official,  show  the  distribution  of 
planted  areas  for  the  crop  years  1920-21  and  1921-22  by  residencies 
and  also  the  number  of  estates: 


Residency. 

Number  of  estates. 

Estates  belonging  to 
Sugar  Syndicate. 

Total  bouws. 

1920-21 

1921-22 

1920-21 

1921-22 

1920-21 

1921-22 

Cheribon . 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11,422 
23,515 
9, 713 
6, 476 

9, 492 

Pekalongan . 

18 

18 

18* 

18 

23,680 

9,710 

6,903 

Semarang . 

12 

12 

12 

12 

Banjoemas . 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Ked'oe . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4,969 

4,883 

18,062 

13,074 

7,741 

Djokjakarta . 

17 

18 

17 

18 

14' 933 

Soer^karta . 

15 

15 

15 

15 

9, 644 

Madioen . 

6 

6 

6 

6 

8'  152 

Soerabaya . 

36 

36 

36 

36 

3l'  103 

33,997 
22,776 
28,878 
8, 268 

Kediri . 

22 

21 

21 

21 

23, 947 
29,072 
8,255 

Pasoeroean . 

30 

29 

29 

29 

Besoeki . 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Total . 

185 

184 

183 

181 

181,202 

1  187,464 

i  To  Sept.  30,  1-921,  only. 


EXPORTS  OF  SUGAR. 

Exports  of  head  sugar  (including  “channel”  and  higher)  and 
sack  and  molasses,  by  countries,  during  1913,  1914,  and  1916  to  1919 
were  as  follows: 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1914 

1916 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Netherlands  and  for  orders .... 

England  and  for  orders . 

France  and  for  orders . _ 

Metric  tons. 
117 
306 

Metric  tons. 
22 
56 

Metric  tons. 
86 

515,  779 
13,  719 
866 

Metric  tons. 

6,060 

Metric  tons. 
30,709 
577,  424 
62,291 

Metric  tons. 

Belgium . 

Ttaly  and  for  orders . 

16,  579 
12,232 

Norway  and  for  orders . 

Turkey  and  for  orders . 

41 

ftfhraltar  and  for  orders . 

2,122 
70, 669 
43 

Port  Said  and  for  orders . 

41 

35,073 
12, 109 
6,139 

Suez  and  for  orders . 

Canada . 

5,989 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


81 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1914 

1916 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

British  India . 

Penang  and  Malacca . 

Singapore  and  for  orders . 

Siam . 

Hongkong . 

Amoy  and  Swatow . 

Shanghai . 

Japan . 

Australia  and  New  Zealand. . . 
All  other . 

Total . 

Metric  tons. 
618, 712 
876 
91,  539 
3,495 
190, 326 
7,506 
24,820 
261,  899 
32,  764 
307 

Metric  tons. 
90, 341 

3,069 
8,000 
72, 053 
8,444 
22,  736 
24,  697 

202 

Metric  tons. 
346,  750 
1, 339 
69, 331 
2,  813 
109,646 
5,937 
14,  984 
98,  271 
8,471 
331 

Metric,  tons. 
108,  822 
753 
3,305 
4,579 
59,  741 
17, 176 
8,479 
17,258 
577 
33 

Metric  tons. 
393, 275 
11, 340 
66, 559 
11, 222 
121, 157 
3,  780 
2,233 
48,923 
5,699 
1,030 

Metric  tons. 
81, 839 
1, 575 
2,538 
10,406 
40,020 
2,438 
3,266 
1,459 
297 

1,  238,  738 

229,  620 

1,  261, 157 

226,  783 

1, 417,  774 

143,  838 

Countries  of  destination. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Head  sugar. 

Sack  and 
molasses. 

Netherlands  and  for  orders .... 
United  States . 

Metric  tons. 

6 

10 

302,  225 
24,442 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
22, 386 
1, 928 
212, 624 
80, 974 
5,053 
23,  431 
6,953 
11,  715 
318 

81,  222 
13,004 
10,  881 
25,160 
15, 619 
5,347 
508 
1, 017 
140,  392 
20,  111 
10,  826 

358, 461 
6,094 
89,  641 
51 

206,  708 
692 
1,020 
9,025 
1,  397 
364,246 
114,  363 
108 

Metric  tons. 

8, 233 
75,063 
33, 636 

England  and  for  orders . 

France  and  for  orders . 

Belgium . 

Italy  and  for  orders . 

2,986 

Switzerland . 

Spain  and  for  orders . 

Denmark . 

Norway  and  for  orders . 

20,  034 

17,  708 
5,483 

Sweden . 

26 

Russia  and  for  orders . 

Turkey  and  for  orders . 

Greece  and  for  orders . 

8,138 

5,746 

Rumania . 

Palestine . 

Cypress  and  Malta . 

Port  Said  and  for  orders . 

11,  265 
10, 3S5 

18,  074 
34,429 
20,  784 
7,679 
376, 874 
11, 620 
184, 979 
769 
296,  746 
10,  502 
6,445 
9,403 
2,999 
364,  483 
6,373 
3,465 

Suez  and  for  orders . 

* 

Canada . 

Argentina . 

British  India . 

322,  827 
17,  979 
181, 114 
25,  409 
142,005 
670 
1,055 
3,578 

54, 394 
787 
2,100 
10,  260 
20, 577 

15, 307 
241 
4,441 
14,  426 
30,  247 

2,968 

Penang  and  Malacca . 

Singapore  and  for  orders . 

Siam . 

499 

Hongkong . 

13, 936 

Amoy  and  Swatow . . . 

Shanghai . 

1,547 

3, 171 

275 

Dairen  . . . 

Vladivostok . 

Japan . 

73,  243 
21,  111 
942 

509 

279 

2,260 

Australia  and  New  Zealand. . . 

All  other . 

251 

31 

Total . 

1, 166,  438 

96,  485 

1,  504,  479 

68,  084 

1,  841,  714 

19,  969 

GRADES  OF  SUGAR. 

Superior  sugar. — A  crystallized,  very  white  sugar,  whiter  than 
No.  25  Dutch  standard ;  polarization  about  100°  ;  ready  for  European 
consumption.  It  is  sold  according  to  sample. 

Superior  second  sugar. — A  white,  fine-grained,  slightly  wet  sugar, 
whiter  than  ^No.  25  Dutch  standard.  The  polarization  is  not  fixed. 
Sold  according  to  sample. 

Sugar  No .  16  and  higher ,  channel  assortment. — A  light-colored 
dry  sugar,  corresponding  in  color  with  Nos.  16  and  18  of  the  Dutch 
standard.  It  is  sold  on  the  basis  of  polarization  at  98°. 


82 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Sugar  Nos.  12  and  H,  muscovados ,  American  assortment. — A  dark- 
colored,  slightly  wet,  well-crystallized  sugar,  corresponding  in  color 
with  Nos.  12  and  14  of  the  Dutch  standard.  Polarization  is  based 
on  96.5°. 

Black  strap ,  molasses  sugar. — A  dark  sugar,  corresponding  in  color 
with  Nos.  8  and  10  of  the  Dutch  standard;  no  specified  polarization. 
Sold  according  to  sample. 

C entrifugaled  sack  sugar. — A  dark  after-product,  corresponding  in 
color  with  No.  8  of  the  Dutch  standard.  No  special  analysis  is 
wanted,  but  at  least  80°  polarization  is  expected. 

SUPERIOR  HEAD  SUGAR  IN  THE  SOERABAYA  MARKET. 

JANUARY  1916  TO  NOVEMBER  1921. 


EXCHANGE  FlUCTUATIOHS  FOLLOW  NEW  YORK,  LONDON  CROSSRATE  CLOSELY. 

Fig.  7. 

Sack  sugar. — A  sticky  mixture  of  fine  crystals  and  adhering  mo¬ 
lasses,  obtained  by  draining  off  in  mat  bags.  It  has  to  be  of  a  good, 
salable  quality,  and  a  polarization  of  at  least  72°  is  expected.  Sold 
according  to  sample. 

VEREENIGING  JAVASUIKER  PRODUCENTEN. 

Conditions  prevailing  in  1916  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Javasche 
Suiker  Vereeniging  (an  association  of  factories  representing  ap¬ 
proximately  65  per  cent  of  the  area  under  cane)  to  handle  the  sale 
of  the  crop  harvested  in  1917.  The  sale  of  this  crop  opened  in 
May,  1916,  with  Superior  at  13  florins  and  head  sugar  at  11.75  florins. 
It  reached  its  highest  point  in  November,  when  Superior  sold  for 
14.75  florins  and  head  sugar  and  muscovados  touched  the  13-florin 
mark.  From  that  date  there  was  a  decline,  which  resolved  itself 
into  a  sudden  slump  in  April  and  May,  1917,  as  the  milling  season 
approached,  in  spite  of  the  combination  of  sugar  ihills.  The  last 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


83 


sales  of  the  Javasche  Suiker  Vereeniging  were  made  at  10.25  florins 
for  Superior  and  8.75  and  9.25  florins,  respectively,  for  head  sugar 
and  muscovados.  Considerable  stocks  were  carried  over  for  sale 
in  1918,  and  the  failure  of  the  combination  to  check  the  decline 
brought  about  its  dissolution  at  the  end  of  1917. 

From  the  beginning  of  1918  until  August  there  was  no  association 
of  sugar  mills,  and  the  pessimistic  tone  of  the  market  was  shown 
clearly  in  the  prices.  Dutch  shipping  had  been  withdrawn  from 
the  Java  trade  and  the  frightened  millers  vied  with  each  other  to 
get  their  sugar  into  the  hands  of  the  speculators.  With  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  the  1916-17  crop  on  hand  the  sales  of  the  1917-18  crop  opened 
under  a  disadvantage,  and  after  holding  fairly  steady  at  10.50  florins 
for  Superior  and  around  8  florins  for  head  sugar  and  muscovados 
until  March,  there  was  a  panic  to  sell  out,  apparently  at  any  price. 
At  the  end  of  May  muscovados  went  below  6  florins  and  in  July 
Superior  and  muscovados  were  on  a  level  at  6  florins,  with  head 
sugar  at  25  cents  above.  Many  of  the  speculators  were  in  a  precarious 
position,  some  suffering  heavy  failures.  The  mill  owners  were  driven 
to  effect  a  combination,  which  began  operations  in  August. 

The  foregoing  is  an  outline  of  the  conditions  leading  up  to  the 
reorganization — showing,  in  1917,  failure  with  partial  organization ; 
in  the  beginning  of  1918  a  general  panic,  with  conditions  ripe  for 
reorganization  and  the  formation  of  a  combination. 

On  August  8, 1918,  the  Vereeniging  Javasuiker  Producenten  (Java 
Sugar  Producers’  Society)  took  charge  of  the  selling  of  the  product 
of  160  mills,  which  included  nearly  all  of  the  Dutch-owned  mills  and 
some  of  the  Chinese-owned  mills;  in  all,  about  90  per  cent  of  the 
production  of  Java. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  HAND  MARKETS. 

The  product  of  all  the  European-owned  mills  is  sold  through  the 
Vereeniging  Javasuiker  Producenten,  which  fixes  a  price  limit  for 
the  various  grades  at  which  they  are  sold  until  market  conditions 
demand  a  change.  In  normal  seasons  the  crop  is  out  of  first  hands 
before  the  milling  season  is  over,  and  in  order  to  balance  the  year’s 
output  certain  quantities  are  sold  forward  on  “  remainder  condi¬ 
tions”;  that  is  to  say,  if  there  is  more  sugar  milled  than  is  sold  out¬ 
right  the  remainder  will  be  sold  on  the  above  conditions. 

Since  1919  the  first  sellers  have  demanded  that  a  50  per  cent  mar¬ 
gin  be  put  up  against  all  contracts  of  sale,  but  an  exception  is  made 
on  contracts  with  a  few  first-class  exporting  houses. 

The  mills  that  do  not  sell  their  output  through  the  Vereeniging 
Javasuiker  Producenten  are  all  owned  by  Chinese,  who  are  also 
speculators  in  sugar.  The  product  of  these  mills  is  generally  con¬ 
sidered  to  be  in  the  second-hand  market  when  milled. 

There  is  a  large  speculator  market  in  Java  that  buys  forward, 
figuring  on  a  rise  as  the  sugar  becomes  “  spot  ”  or  ready  stock.  This 
speculator  market,  composed  of  Chinese,  British  Indians,  and  some 
European  houses,  is  extremely  excitable,  and  often  holds  sugar  for 
a  rise  at  prices  much  above  those  of  the  world’s  markets. 

19878°— 23 - 7 


84 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


CONTRACT  OF  SALE. 


The  following  contract  of  sale  is  used  in  transactions  in  Java: 


Messrs. 


No. 


Dear  Sirs  :  I  hereby  certify  that  I  have — 

Bought  from _ 

Sold  to _ 

tons  of  20  cwts - sugar,  ex  crop - packed  in  good, 

strong  gunny  bags  fit  for  export,  measuring  44"  x  26J"  each,  weighing  about 
2f  English  pounds  and  containing  about  1.64  piculs  of  sugar. 

Price _ per  picul  of  136  English  pounds  net  weight,  de¬ 
livered  free  on  board  export  vessel  at _ port(s)  at  seller’s  op¬ 

tion,  to  be  declared  in  due  time  to  enable  buyers  to  declare  loading  ports  to 
the  steamer’s  agents. 

Shipment  to  be  made  during  the  month (s)  of _ by  any  steamer 

at  buyer’s  option.  Buyer  to  provide  tonnage  and  to  declare  steamers’  names, 
giving  all  necessary  shipping  instructions  in  due  time. 

Should  the  buyers  have  failed  to  take  delivery  of  the  sugar  or  part  thereof 
on _ buyers  shall  on  that  day  pay  for  the  sugar  not  yet  re¬ 

ceived  and  indemnify  sellers  for  all  expenses  which  may  be  incurred  by  them 
for  store,  rent,  insurance,  etc.,  up  to  the  time  that  the  sugar  is  received.  In 
case  shipment  is  to  be  made  to  British  India,  buyers  shall  only  engage  freight 
by  the  steamers  of  the  Asiatic  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  British  India  Steam 
Navigation  Co.,  and/or  Java  Bengalen  Line. 

Insurance. — Marine  insurance  W.  A.  including  lighterage  risk  from  shore  to 
the  steamer  to  be  effected  by  the  buyers. 

Payment. — Cash  in _ against  clean  mates’  receipts. 

Any  dispute  arising  under  this  contract  to  be  settled  by  arbitration  in 

_ ,  each  party  appointing  an  arbitrator,  and  should  the 

arbitrators  be  unable  to  agree  the  decision  of  the  umpire  selected  by  them  to 
be  final. 

The  arbitrators  and  umpire  are  all  to  be  commercial  men  and  resident  at 


Yours  faithfully, 


Broker. 

All  transactions  are  made  through  brokers.  (For  brokerage  rates 
see  “Brokers  and  brokerages,”  p.  366.) 

Before  rubber  became  the  principal  agricultural  crop  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  sugar  was  grown  extensively,  but  to-day  none  is  grown 
for  export,  and  the  only  production  is  by  the  natives  for  native 
consumption.  The  areas  formerly  under  sugar  cane  are  now  all 
under  rubber.  It  is  claimed  that  there  are  large  areas  suitable  to  its 
growth  along  the  Burnham  River,  south  of  Telok  Anson. 

COPRA  AND  COCONUT  OIL. 

Coconuts  are  grown  along  the  coasts  of  all  the  principal  islands 
of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  in  many  parts  of  the  interior. 
The  cultivation  is  almost  all  carried  on  by  natives,  although  there  are 
a  few  plantations  owned  and  operated  by  Europeans.  Copra  is  the 
dried  meat  of  the  coconut. 

In  all  parts  of  British  Malaya  coconuts  are  grown  to  some  extent, 
but  the  largest  part  of  the  production  is  in  the  Non-Federated  Malay 
States  (particularly  in  the  State  of  Johore),  the  Federated  Malay 
States,  and  the  Straits  Settlements  of  the  peninsula.  The  copra 
produced  in  the  Non-Federated  Malay  States  is  mostly  grown  and 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218 


FIG.  9.— A  FIELD  OF  YOUNG  CANE, 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  10— TYPICAL  COCONUT  VILLAGE  IN  CELEBES. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


85 


prepared  by  the  natives,  while  in  the  other  districts  mentioned  there 
are  large  European-owned  estates. 

There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  the  Straits  Settlements  (particu¬ 
larly  Singapore)  in  copra  produced  in  the  Dutch  possessions.  In 
1919  the  Straits  Settlements  imported  29,700,829  Straits  dollars’ 
worth  of  copra  and  exported  33,776,114  Straits  dollars’  worth,  the 
Singapore  dollar  being  worth  $0,567  at  par  exchange. 

The  value  of  copra  imported  into  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1919  is 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Origin. 

Imported  through— 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

Malacca. 

Labuan. 

China . 

Straits 

dollars. 

3, 220 
521,426 
3, 321,935 
2, 218, 831 
21,400 
3,741,018 
4, 145,787 
445, 007 
827,019 

Straits 

dollars. 

Straits 

dollars. 

Straits 

dollars. 

French  Tndo-China  . 

Dutch  Borneo . 

Celebes  and  Molucca . 

Java . 

Sumatra . 

2,072,892 

Other  Dutch  possessions . 

408 

Philippines . 

Siam" ! . 

85, 575 
90, 190 

British  India  and  Burma . 

North  Borneo . 

462, 189 
42,971 
2,291,788 
6,893,674 
922 

16, 886 

Sarawak . 

Federated  Malay  States . 

2,399,786 
95, 361 

2, 544 

Non-Federated  Malay  States . 

All  other  countries. .  . . 

Total . 

24, 937, 187 

4, 743, 804 

2, 952 

16, 886 

The  value  of  copra  exported  from  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1919 
was  as  follows: 


Destination. 

Exported  through— 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

United  Kingdom . 

Straits 

dollars. 

8, 191, 645 
32, 800 
2,079,232 
3, 534, 087 
8,904,475 
1,074, 106 
577,782 
168, 102 

Straits 
dollars. 
1,920,800 
50,300 
23, 500 
4,607, 580 
471, 486 
29, 600 
27, 100 

British  India  and  Burma  . 

Belgium  . 

Denmark . 

Netherlands . 

Sweden . 

199,500 

Japan . 

103, 242 
90,720 
1,313,554 
360 

Java . 

91, 173 
284,970 

United  States . 

All  other  countries . 

Total . 

26, 070, 105 

7, 706, 009 

The  import  figures  show  that  about  60  per  cent  of  the  total  im¬ 
ports  into  the  Straits  Settlements  come  from  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  and  40  per  cent  come  from  the  Malay  Peninsula.  Of  the 
exports,  30  per  cent  went  to  the  United  Kingdom,  5  per  cent  to  the 


86  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

United  States,  and  the  balance  to  continental  Europe,  with  some 
very  small  amounts  to  Java  and  Japan. 

Before  the  war  continental  European  houses  did  most  of  the  ex¬ 
porting  to  Europe,  according  to  a  reliable  authority,  and  the  ship¬ 
ments  which  went  to  London  were  on  a  speculative  basis.  To-day 
most  of  the  British  export  houses  deal  in  this  product,  principally 
for  the  account  of  continental  European  houses.  One  British  con¬ 
cern,  with  offices  at  Singapore,  Penang,  Colombo,  London,  and  New 
York,  is  the  most  important  single  unit  in  the  trade.  Its  buying  is 
largely  for  the  account  of  the  mills  at  Aarhus,  Denmark. 

The  imports  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  the  native 
production  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  are  handled  by  the  Chinese 
houses,  and  transactions  are  between  the  Chinese  and  the  exporters 
without  the  intervention  of  brokers. 

AREA  AND  EXTENT  OF  COCONUT  CULTIVATION. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  areas  under  cultivation  by  regis¬ 
tered  companies,  was  taken  from  an  official  statement  of  the  Colonial 
Government,  dated  September,  1919: 


Coconut  plantations. 

Java  and  Madoera. 

Outer  Possessions. 

Planted. 

Bearing. 

Planted. 

Bearing. 

Unmixed  with  other  cultures . 

Planted  with  one  other  culture . 

Planted  with  two  other  cultures . 

Planted  with  three  or  more  cultures . 

Mixed  with  other  cultures . 

Total . 

Hectares. 

2, 932 
638 
647 
39 
2, 764 

e 

Hectares. 

1, 028 
124 
36 
11 
502 

Hectares. 

9,379 

3,908 

662 

348 

2,348 

Hectares. 

1,773 

904 

54 

256 

6,920 

1,701 

16, 545 

2,987 

Business  men  in  the  trade  have  expressed  some  surprise  at  the 
small  area  listed  above,  and  doubt  has  been  expressed  as  to  the  ac¬ 
curacy  of  the  figures.  *  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the  controlling 
companies  are  not  registered  under  the  laws  of  the  colony  and  there¬ 
fore  are  not  included  in  these  figures. 

In  1918  the  Government  published  a  pamphlet  on  oilseeds,  written 
the  preceding  year  by  B.  Streefland,  who,  until  his  death  in  1918,  was 
the  manager  of  the  Oliefabrieken  Insulinde.  While  this  pamphlet 
bears  the  stamp  of  the  Government,  it  is  not,  strictly  spealdng,  an 
official  document.  The  Government  gave  Mr.  Streefland  great  as¬ 
sistance  in  compiling  the  figures,  and  it  stands  to-day  as  the  most 
authoritative  document  on  this  subject  in  the  Netherlands  East  In¬ 
dies. 

The  following  figures  on  the  number  of  coconut  trees  planted  in 
this  colony  are  taken  partly  from  Mr.  Streefland’s  publication  and 
partly  from  supplementary  figures  supplied  by  the  Government : 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


87 


Residency. 

Bearing. 

Not  bearing. 

Total. 

Java  and  Madoera: 

Bantam . 

Number. 
1,942,315 
606, 706 

Number. 
1,020, 990 

Number. 
2,963,305 
1,424,133 
8,314,294 
1,436,805 
1,557,178 
5, 854,366 

Batavia . . . 

*  817^427 
4,274,733 
637, 885 
511,753 
2, 106, 099 

Preanger . 

4,039'  561 

Cheribon . 

798,920 
1,045,425 
3, 748, 267 
2,394, 134 
2,039,347 
1,037, 487 
1,549,087 
1,402,350 

Pekalongan . 

Semarang . 

Rembang. . 

l' 380' 814 

3,774,948 

3,000,689 

1,805,399 

2,598,356 

2,263,306 

4,953,812 

Soerabaya . 

96l'342 

Madoera . 

767,912 

1,049,269 

860,956 

1,667,400 

3,174,932 

Pasoeroean . 

Besoeki . 

Banjoemas . 

3, 286'  412 

Ked'oe . 

4^629;  453 

7,804,385 

3,128,032 

2,011,389 

Djokjakarta . 

1,893,758 

1,078,752 

2,989,416 

I',  234;  274 
932, 637 
2,367,839 

Soerakarta . 

Madioen . 

5;  357',  255 
5,680,081 

Kediri . 

2'  991 ; 822 

2'  688'  259 

Total . 

37,473,212 

26,454,521 

63,927,733 

Outer  Possessions: 

Sumatra  West  Coasfe . 

2,009, 583 
548, 069 
876, 131 
100, 561 
1,254,821 
2,704,348 

1,355, 760 
610,343 

3,365,343 

1,158,412 

1,366,026 

294,938 

3,123,394 

5,750,142 

949,800 

Tapanoeli . 

Lainpongs  and  Palembang . 

489',  895 
194,377 
1,868,573 
3,045, 794 
612,300 
2, 864, 691 
775,993 
5,380, 240 
1,732,992 
1,038,093 
768,238 
638, 154 

Djambi . ~ . 

Sumatra  East  Coast . 

Riouw .  ...  . 

Banka .  . 

'337i  500 
3, 123, 826 
844,351 
4, 517,958 
1,921,237 

Western  Borneo . 

5, 988i  517 
1,620,344 

South  and  East  Borneo . 

Menado . 

9,898, 198 
3,654,229 
2,324,118 
1,743,572 
3,099,322 

Celebes . 

Amboina . 

h  286',  025 
975,334 
2, 461, 168 

Timor . 

Bali  and  Lombok . 

Total . 

22, 960, 912 

21,375,443 

44,336,355 

Grand  total . 

60, 434, 124 

47,829,064 

108,264,088 

It  would  be  unsafe  to  attempt  any  exact  deductions  from  the 
figures  just  given,  as  the  method  of  procuring  them  was  not  as  exact 
as  might  be  desired.  They  are  submitted  as  the  best  available  figures 
on  the  subject. 

In  connection  with  these  figures  Mr.  Streefland  gives  the  following 
data: 

The  monthly  nut  production  per  tree  is  not  everywhere  equal,  but  lessens 
according  to  the  elevation  of  the  plantation. 

In  the  lowlands,  in  soil  suited  to  the  production  of  coconuts,  a  tree  will  yield 
six  coconuts  per  month,  while  in  the  Preanger  Residency  not  more  than  three 
nuts  per  month  may  be  expected  from  each  tree,  and  the  nuts  will  be  smaller 
and  copra  made  from'  them  will  not  be  so  good. 

Under  average  conditions  it  may  be  expected  that  300  nuts  will  yield  1  picul 
(136  pounds)  of  copra. 

In  reckoning  copra  production  it  can  be  assumed  that  six  full-grown  trees 
will  produce  1  picul  of  copra  per  year,  or,  roundly,  100  trees  will  give  1  ton 
of  copra  per  year. 

Mr.  Streefland  estimates  that  the  production  of  Java  and  Madoera 
in  1917  was  323,913  tons  of  copra,  and  that  of  the  Outer  Possessions 
(not  including  Benkoelen,  Ternate,  Timor,  and  Bali  and  Lombok,  for 
which  no  figures  were  available  at  that  time)  165,345  tons,  which 
would  bring  the  production  of  the  Outer  Possessions  up  to  200,000 
tons. 


88 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


COPRA  GRADES. 

Grades  of  copra  vary  according  to  whether  the  year  is  a  dry  or  a 
wTet  one,  and,  as  no  very  definite  standard  is  maintained  throughout 
the  archipelago,  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  different  dis¬ 
tricts  of  the  Outer  Possessions.  Copra  is  bought  by  the  exporters 
on  its  general  appearance,  but  as  these  buyers  are  experts  in  their 
line  they  are  able  to  keep  the  grades  to  fairly  definite  qualities. 

Export  dry. — This  term  applies  to  all  grades  of  copra  exported. 
This  means  that  there  shall  not  be  more  than  5  per  cent  of  water 
content. 

Sun-dried  and  mixed. — Copra  is  classified  as  either  “ sun-dried” 
or  “  mixed.”  “  Sun-dried  ”  is  not  supposed  to  contain  more  than  5 


PRICES  OP  COCOANUT  OIL. 

SOERABAYA  MARKET 
CALENDAR  YEARS  Bl*  1920,1921 


I  FLORIN* #.402  I  PICUL*  136  LBS. 

EXCHAN6E  FLUCTUATIONS  FOLLOW  NEW  YORK.  LONDON  CROSSRATE  CLOSELY 

Fig.  11. 


per  cent  of  smoked,  and  “  mixed  ”  contains  everything  that  does  not 
go  into  the  higher  grades. 

Java  F .  M.  S. — ■“  Java  fair  merchantable  sun-dried”  tops  the  mar¬ 
ket  and  is  probably  the  best-known  grade  in  the  world’s  markets. 
It  is  “  export  dry  ”  and  may  contain,  roughly,  2  per  cent  of  smoked 
and  5  per  cent  of  young  nuts,  which  have  a  lower  oil  content  than 
the  mature  nuts.  This  grade  is  produced  in  Java. 

Bali  sun-dided. — In  the  Residency  of  Bali  and  Lombok  the  Govern¬ 
ment  exercises  a  strict  control  of  the  quality  going  out  under  this 
grade,  and  it  is  very  highly  regarded  on  the  Soerabaya  market. 
Owing  to  a  bad  reputation  in  the  past,  this  grade  does  not  bring  the 
top  price,  although  it  is  considered  as  good  as  the  “Java  F.  M.  S.” 
locally,  and  generally  finds  a  ready  sale  in  Soerabaya. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


89 


Macassar  sun-dried. — This  grade  may  contain  up  to  5  per  cent  of 
smoked  copra,  but,  unlike  “Java  F.  M.  S.,”  it  does  not  contain  many 
young  nuts.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  authorities  as 
to  the  value  of  this  grade,  and  the  reputation  of  the  seller  has  much 
to  do  with  the  price  the  product  will  bring.  It  is  considered  to  be 
slightly  under  “Java  sun-dried  ”  in  quality. 

Pontianak  mixed. — This  had  been  going  to  Singapore  until  the 
route  of  the  K.  P.  M.  (Royal  Dutch  Inter  island  Steamship  Line) 
was  changed  to  provide  an  easy  channel  for  it  to  reach  the  Java 
ports.  Under  this  name  it  is  not  a  well-known  grade  in  the  world’s 
markets,  and  the  local  oil  mills  have  been  buying  it.  It  is  a  grade 
between  “  sun-dried  ”  and  “  mixed  ”  and  may  contain  from  60  to  80 
per  cent  of  “sun-dried.” 

Java  mixed. — Although  this  grade  exists,  there  is  so  small  a  quan¬ 
tity  on  the  market  that  it  is  not  worth  considering,  especially  in  a 
discussion  of  export  grades. 

Macassar  mixed  ( Molucca  mixed). — This  grade  may  contain  any¬ 
thing  that  is  not  in  the  “  Macassar  sun-dried  ”  grade.  One  exporter 
stated  that  buyers  should  designate  “  Macassar  mixed  fair  mer¬ 
chantable.” 

Padang  copra  “  tel  quel.” — This  is  a  very  poor  grade  that  before 
the  war  was  bought  principally  by  the  Marseille  (France)  mills  at 
a  very  low  price.  “  Tel  quel  ”  means  “  everything  allowed.”  The 
Chinese  of  Padang  make  a  cheap  soap  of  it  for  the  native  trade. 

Kring  Biassa. — This  is  an  old  local  grade  and,  while  it  still  exists, 
is  not  at  all  common.  Copra  at  one  time  was  brought  to  Soerabaya 
half  dried,  and  there  it  was  put  into  shape  for'  the  export  markets. 
This  half-dried  copra  was  “  Kring  Biassa.” 

Molucca  sun-dried. — The  copra  coming  from  Molucca  is  not  care¬ 
fully  graded  as  a  rule.  It  comes  into  the  Macassar  market  in  small 
lots  and  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  quality,  due  to  the  lack  of  the 
close  contact  with  the  exporting  houses  that  exists  in  the  Celebes  and 
Menado  Residencies.  Some  local  authorities  state  that  the  grades 
“  Macassar  sun-dried  ”  and  “  Molucca  sun-dried  ”  are  the  same,  but 
the  term  “  Molucca  ”  in  connection  with  sun-dried  should  be  avoided. 
The  “  Molucca  mixed  ”  grade  is  the  same  as  “  Macassar  mixed.” 

SALES  AND  EXPORT  METHODS. 

Sales  are  made  through  brokers.  Brokerage  charges  cover  buying 
only,  and  the  more  reliable  brokers  refuse  to  have  anything  further 
to  do  with  the  transaction.  In  Soerabaya  alone  there  are  over  60 

brokers.  .-1  ad  llmla  9Dinri£j8£ri  iuM— .sownimtl 

The  “  veems  ”  are  institutions  similar  in  some  respects  to  American 
forwarding  companies,  but  their  functions  are  much  wider.  They 
receive,  inspect,  pack,  and  ship,  and  their  charges  are  standardized 
for  the  ordinary  transactions.  They  usually  have  quite  an  invest¬ 
ment  in  plant  and  equipment,  are  operated  by  joint-stock  companies, 
and  bear  a  good  reputation  for  executing  their  commissions  properly. 

All  copra  for  export  is  “  export  dry,”  as  before  stated.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  sell  f.  o.  b.,  n.  o.  g.,  which  means  free  on  board,  net  de¬ 
livered  weights,  and  guarantee  of  the  quality  sold  as  delivered  to  the 
buyer.  Considerable  trickery  has  crept  into  the  trade  through  this 
custom,  and  some  exporters  refuse  to  handle  business  in  this  way. 


90 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Where  both  exporter  and  importer  are  concerns  of  high  character 
it  works  out  satisfactorily,  but  where  one  or  the  other  is  inclined  to 
take  unfair  advantage  there  is  room  for  expensive  disagreements. 
It  is  claimed  by  exporters  that  an  advance  of  from  7  to  8  per  cent 
on  the  original  cost  price  is  made  for  copra  sold  in  this  way.  It  is 
the  custom  in  these  transactions  to  draw  against  the  credit  estab¬ 
lished  with  the  Java  banks  for  95  per  cent  of  the  invoice  price,  the 
5  per  cent  being  left  open  for  adjustment  of  weights  at  the  point  of 
delivery. 

The  Netherlands  has  been  the  market  for  Dutch  East  Indian 
copra  for  many  decades,  and  it  is  the  custom,  based  upon  the  ex¬ 
perience  of  years,  to  take  certified  samples  from  every  such  ship¬ 
ment  immediately  on  arrival,  which  samples  are  field  with  the 
Netherlands  board  of  arbitration,  making  at  the  same  time  an  ap¬ 
plication  for  arbitration.  When  the  copra  is  delivered  and  found 
satisfactory,  this  application  is  withdrawn. 

CONTRACT  FOR  SALE  OF  COPRA. 

The  following  is  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  “  fair  merchantable 
Java  sun-dried”  copra: 

Purchased  from _ 

Sold  to  _ 

_ tons  of  1,000  kilos  shipping  weight,  “  fair  merchantable  Java  sun-dried  ” 

copra  (2  per  cent  more  or  less,  at  the  choice  of  the  sellers),  at  the  price  of 

_ florins,  Dutch  East  India  currency,  per  picul  of  61.76  kilos,  f.  o.  b.  Java 

harbor,  to  be  ascertained  as  net  wreight  delivered  in  the  harbor  of  destination 
under  the  following  additional  conditions: 

Shipment. — Shipment  shall  be  made  to  Amsterdam,  and/or  Rotterdam, 
and/or  Hamburg,  and/or  Bremen,  and/or  Marseille  at  the  option  of  the  buyer 

during  the  months  of - ,  192 ,  by  one  or  more  conference  steamers  to  be 

designated  by  the  sellers,  from  one  or  more  Javanese  ports,  at  the  option  of 
the  sellers. 

The  sellers  shall  accordingly  provide  ship  space  at  current  rates. 

At  least  eight  days  before  loading  the  sellers  shall  notify  the  buyers  of  the 
name  of  the  steamship  by  which  the  shipment  is  to  be  made  and  the  quantity 
to  be  shipped. 

Within  two  times  24  hours  before  the  loading  of  the  copra  the  buyers  shall 
indicate  to  the  sellers  the  destination  and  markings. 

Each  shipment  shall  be  at  least  25,000  kilos. 

Quality. — Should  the  copra  not  satisfy  the  specifications  for  “  fair  merchant¬ 
able  quality  sun-dried,”  then  the  compensation  eventually  due  therefor  and  the 
costs  of  arbitration  to  be  determined  by  the  arbitration  bureau  at  Amsterdam, 
and/or  London,  and/or  Marseille  at  the  buyers’  option  (at  the  last-named  place 
alone,  eventually,  for  the  lots  shipped  to  Marseille)  shall  be  at  the  expense  of 
the  sellers.  If  no  compensation  be  allowed,  the  costs  of  arbitration  shall  be  at 
the  expense  of  the  buyers.  The  bonus  shall  be  credited  to  the  buyers. 

Insurance. — Marine  insurance  shall  be  paid  by  the  buyers.  The  sellers  must 
see  to  it  that  such  proas  be  employed  as  will  permit  insurance  of  cargo  at  the 
ordinary  premium  (rate). 

Payment. — Where  the  buyers  have  an  office  in  India,  payment  shall  be  made 
for  95  per  cent  of  the  quantity  shipped,  against  surrender  of  master’s  receipt. 

After  the  weight  has  been  determined  in  the  port  of  destination,  the  balance 
due  shall  be  liquidated  on  surrender  of  the  respective  documents. 

In  case  of  a  total  or  partial  loss  of  the  lots  shipped  by  a  marine  disaster  or 
otherwise,  the  buyers  shall  pay  the  remainder  according  to  the  usual  insur¬ 
ance  conditions. 

Arbitration. — 'Arbitration  must  be  asked  for  within  14  days  after  the  unload¬ 
ing  of  a  shipment  in  one  of  the  ports  named  in  the  contract;  no  arbitration  can 
be  had  after  that  term  has  expired. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


91 


The  buyers  are  bound  to  notify  the  sellers  in  time  before  the  checking  of  the 
weight  and  quality  in  one  of  the  ports  named  in  this  contract,  and  the  sellers 
are  then  bound  immediately  to  appoint  their  checkers. 

In  case  deliveries  made  under  this  contract  should  be  received  and  weighed 
by  the  buyers  in  Europe  without  an  invitation  by  the  buyers  to  the  sellers  to 
join  in  the  checking  of  the  weight  and  quality,  then  the  buyers  must  pay  the 
sellers  the  value,  under  this  contract,  of  the  quantity  shipped,  respectively,  of 
the  quantity  indicated  in  the  consignments  or  in  the  master’s  receipts. 

Claims  based  on  inferior  quality  will  not  be  recognized  by  the  sellers  in  such 
a  case.  However,  if  it  should  appear  that  there  was  no  bad  faith,  the  sellers 
shall  accept  the  weights  as  found  by  sworn  weighers. 

No  delivery. — In  case  eight  days  before  the  maturity  of  the  contract  the 
sellers  have  not  indicated  any  steamer  by  which  the  copra  would  be  shipped  in 
whole  or  in  part,  and,  after  a  notice  in  writing  by  the  buyers,  no  steamer  has 
been  indicated  within  six  hours,  then  this  contract  is  definitely  broken  that 
day,  and  the  buyers  have  the  right  to  seek  a  supply  elsewhere.  All  damages 
arising  therefrom  shall  be  charged  against  the  sellers. 

Thus  agreed  on  by  the  parties  at  Batavia, _ ,  192 _ 

Broker. 

EXPORTS  OF  COPRA  AND  COCONUT  OIL. 

Like  many  other  products  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  the 
shipments  of  copra  have  been  diverted  to  countries  which  had  not 
before  the  war  been  importing,  but,  unlike  most  of  the  other  prod¬ 
ucts,  the  underlying  conditions  of  the  trade  have  also  undergone  a 
change.  The  milling  of  copra  was  in  its  infancy  in  1913,  the  follow¬ 
ing  year  being  the  first  in  which  the  exports  of  coconut  oil  were  suf¬ 
ficiently  large  to  be  given  a  separate  place  in  the  customs  returns. 
As  the  exports  of  copra  decreased  those  of  coconut  oil  increased,  but 
not  in  the  same  ratio.  In  considering  the  exports  of  these  two  prod¬ 
ucts  they  should  be  taken  together  in  order  to  get  a  correct  idea  of 
the  amounts  made  available  to  the  world’s  uses. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  copra  and  coconut  oil 
from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies: 


Countries  of  destination. 


Copra: 

Netherlands . . 

United  States . . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . . 

France . . 

Belgium . 

Switzerland . . 

Spain . 

Scandinavia . 

Other  European 
Port  Said  for  orders . 

British  India . 

Penang . 

Singapore . . 

British  Borneo. 
Philippine  Islands. 
Japan. 

Australia. 

All  other. 


Coconut  oil,  reduced  to  copra 
at  0.9259  specific  gravity 
and  at  54  per  cent  extraction. 


1908 


Metric 

tons. 

85,485 


1,193 
18, 076 
69, 195 


8,671 


7,070 

39,767 


1913 


Metric 
tons. 
74, 024 


494 
28,811 
59, 952 


8,115 


10, 764 
47,007 


1914 


Metric 
tons. 
109, 420 


1,937 
12, 837 
47, 134 


2, 490 


11, 824 
57,823 

44 


1915 


Metric 

tons. 

113,765 

164 

417 


9,563 


4, 568 


8, 142 
38, 033 


1916 


Metric 
tons. 
77, 834 
8, 273 
1,153 


11,705 


3,116 

316 


8,465 
39, 039 
23 


1917 


Metric 
tons. 
16, 824 
29, 346 
3,037 
3 


3,414 

151 


4,498 
33, 368 
60 
103 
15,726 


1918 


Metric 

tons. 


11,044 


3,459 
23, 383 
188 


1919 


Metric 
tons. 
149,254 
7,842 
7,442 
25,409 
10, 956 
7,799 
202 
3, 133 
23,230 


8,475 

126 

7,952 

50,796 


PRICES  OP  COPRA 

FAIR  MERCHANTABLE  SUNDRIED 
SOERABAYA  MARKET 
CALENDAR  YEARS  1918,  1919,  1920,1921- 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


5591  su  iv  9Nixng 
agwn53a  ssawigng  9 19 

0NVW30  9KI0819  nil  91  d  IV 
9HJIAflg  03dd019  SNVWM39 


110  inMVODOO  33S 


l(vin039V  NV3dOdH3 
dOd  9KIIM1S  03iilViS 
5d31dOdX3  -A1IAV3H  9KII 
-xng  a3xavi5.3aNnnswi.N3vi 
■3li«V33nO--5in9ld  ooo'oos'i 

JO  QNVH  Nl  9HOOXS  HJJM 
SwiXng  agddoxs  9NVWd30 


SIZ 1  Sid  IV 
SMIAng  WV939  5NVHd39 


ni  saoiad 


I  FLORIN  =  $402  I  PICUL  =  136  LBS. 

EXCHANGE  FLUCTUATIONS  FOLLOW  NEW  YORK,  LONDON  CROSS  RATE  CLOSELY. 

Fig.  12. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS.  93 

Exports  of  coconut  oil  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by 
countries  of  destination,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


[In  thousands  of  liters.] 


Countries  of  destination  and  origin  of  ship¬ 
ments. 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands: 

Tava  and  Madoera . . . . . 

462 

75 

12 

4,168 

1,927 

438 

7 

197 

1 

654 

5, 723 

42,004 

960 

13,175 

Outer  Possessions . 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3,793 

146 

800 

22, 654 
1,977 

127 

16,130 

379 

170 

Ontpr  Possessions . 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

811 

1,048 

847 

France: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Italy: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

126 

4, 661 

Scandinavia: 

Java  and  Madoera _ .  . 

2,422 

647 

28 

10 

8 

18 

1,225 

552 

274 

8 

715 

1,063 

395 

14,162 

4,867 

Outer  Possessions . 

Singapore  and  Penang: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

14 

630 

Outer  Possessions _  .  . 

1,414 

475 

36 

4 

Hongkong: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

73 

3,805 

60 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

11 

1,068 

843 

99 

Ont.er  Possessions . 

5 

China: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

All  other  countries . 

35 

57 

1,104 

694 

5, 683 

Total  . 

2,820 

8, 098 

13,115 

30,665 

28, 528 

82, 750 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,300 

1,520 

5,475 

2,623 

10,869 
2, 246 

26, 727 
3,938 

26,  896 
1,632 

76,890 

5,860 

Outer  Possessions . 

Metric  tons  of  oil  exported  (0.9259  specific 
gravitv) . 

2, 611 

7,498 

12, 143 

28, 393 

26, 414 

76, 618 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  relative  importance  of 
the  various  ports  in  the  exportation  of  copra  from  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  and  of  the  widespread  value  of  the  culture  to  the  colony, 
although  the  official  figures  covering  the  ports  of  export  of  copra 
have  not  been  carefully  compiled  and  the  totals  do  not  compare  ex¬ 
actly  with  the  totals  of  the  preceding  tables : 


Ports. 

1908 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Java  and  Madoera: 

Batavia . 

Cheribon . 

Metric 

tons. 

17, 216 
79 
4, 139 
22, 918 
47,  579 
958 
277, 
3,553 

Metric 
tons. 
16,096 
145 
3,409 
11,111 
42, 110 
2,337 
511 
3,422 

Metric 

tons. 

14, 116 
77 
2,205 
11,  226 
37,  708 
1,  328 
242 
3,926 

Metric 
tons. 
7,976 
33 
437 
15, 758 
23, 347 
453 
363 
3,190 

Metric 
tons. 
6,164 
17 
355 
8,809 
18,  397 
991 
91 
3,668 

Metric 

tons. 

8,333 

Metric 

tons. 

1, 130 

Metric 

tons. 

47,859 

Semarang . 

Soerabaya . 

Tjilatjap . 

Tegal . 

959 
5,759 
7,784 
505 
40 
1,  542 

1, 855 
510 

7,504 
31, 442 
15, 647 

Pekalongan . 

Banjoewangi . 

Total . 

96,719 

79, 141 

70, 828 

51, 557 

38, 492 

24,922 

3,495 

102,  452 

94 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


Ports. 

1908 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Celebes: 

Macassar . 

Metric 

tons. 

21, 764 
9,417 
8,453 

8,  803  ' 
1,  072 
3,440 

Metric 

ions. 

29, 560 
8,107 
8,178 
7,362 
1, 787 

1,  650 
1,918 

Metric 

tons. 

35, 560 

7.841 
9,123 
7,597 

1.842 

1,  721 

1, 656 

Metric 

tons. 

28, 830 
3,620 
6,574 
5,950 

1, 107 

Metric 
tons. 
22, 205 
6,078 
6, 081 
5,894 
1,668 

Metric 

tons. 

29, 239 
4,116 

1, 350 
3,567 
1,248 

Metric 

tons. 

13,  413 
15, 284 

Metric 
tons. 
126,355 
19, 148 
1, 939 
2,115 

Menado . 

Gnrontalo  . 

Taroena . 

7,442 

Amoerang  .  _  . 

Oelne  Si  arm 

T  a  aofil  an  d  an  g 

Dnnggala  .  _ 

1,977 

All  other. 

2,252 

1,  368 

Total . 

54, 926 

58,  562 

65, 340 

48,  333 

43,  294 

39,  521 

36, 139 

149,  557 

Borneo: 

Pontianak . 

13, 172 

20,  238 
3,568 

20,  437 
4,298 
5,161 
1, 915 

10,  723 
3,310 
3,455 

15,  278 
4,056 
4,864 

10, 158 
4,425 
4,128 

2,399 

2,861 

2,181 

314 

5,525 

3,891 

2,998 

Pamangkat . 

Singkawang . 

3,712 

3,435 

Bandjermasin . 

4,539 

Total . 

20,  319 

28,  345 

31,  811 

17, 488 

24, 198 

18,  711 

7,755 

12, 414 

Sumatra: 

Padang . 

11, 251 

13,  804 

16, 153 

17,546 

14, 116 

8,506 

692 

30, 012 
1,554 

Goenoengsitoli . 

Tandjoengtirem . 

i,  743 
1, 682 
705 

1,  549 
2, 772 
1,  588 

2,358 

3,080 

2,035 

1,  353 
2,470 
1,677 

1,  665 
1, 648 
1,  476 

1, 602 
1,189 
1, 149 
395 
383 

1, 016 
1, 745 
734 

Tandjoengbalai . 

1,453 

2,762 

2,908 

Lho  Seumawe . 

Tandjoengpoera . 

Laboean  Balik . 

342 

Senabang . 

1,154 

Tapanoeli . 

3,214 

749 

551 

2,615 
1, 303 

2,544 
1, 128 

1,324 

1,986 

Poeloe  Tello . 

All  other . 

343 

Total . 

19,  895 

23,  631 

27,  298 

24,370 

20,  891 

13,224 

4,872 

39,  843 

Riouw  Archipelago: 

Penoeba . . . 

364 

920 

3,511 

1,667 

7,306 

1,  295 

Serasan . 

836 

4,266 

2,794 

4,715 

903 

Tandjoeng  Blitoeng . 

6,519 

8,611 

1,457 

Prigi  Radja . T . 

3,840 
12,  437 
1, 368 

Terampali . 

3,961 
1,  480 

7,582 
1,  SOS 

3,819 
1, 177 

3,061 

1,  278 

Tandj  oengpandan . 

1,  280 
105 

Tandjoengbalai . 

Total . 

1,385 

5,441 

15, 909 

13, 607 

5,796 

15,  063 

13,  514 

17,645 

Bali  and  Lombok: 

Benoa . 

4,137 

1,572 

2,170 

4,190 

2,053 

2,323 

1,  348 
1, 132 

Ampenan . 

2,371 

2,353 

1, 127 

Leboean  Hadji . 

Total . 

4,724 

7,879 

8,566 

2,480 

1, 127 

Other  ports: 

Ternate . 

1, 944 
270 
17,  569 
10,  606 

2,339 

2,632 

1,553 

2,340 

Amboina . 

Merauke . 

All  other . 

6,428 

5,480 

2,473 

1,  607 

386 

Total . 

30,  389 

8,767 

8,112 

4,026 

3,947 

386 

Local  consumption  of  copra  and  coconut  oil  is  a  very  important 
factor  and  one  about  which  very  little  definite  information  can  be 
secured.  Streefland  estimates  that  the  annual  consumption  of  vege¬ 
table  oils  throughout  the  colony  averages  2f  kilos  per  capita,  against 
10  kilos  for  the  population  of  continental  Europe  and  2  kilos  for 
the  population  of  England  before  the  war.  The  latest  figures  of 
>opulation  places  the  number  of  natives  at  46,000,000. 

OIL  MILLS. 


[ilseeds  (principally  the  meat  of  the  coconut)  by 
|ands  East  Indies  dates  back  to  1907,  when 
£  Padang,  in  Sumatra;  one  at  Kediri, 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


95 


in  Java;  and  one  at  Pontianak,  in  Borneo.  Two  of  those  mills  were 
permanently  closed  shortly  after  starting,  while  the  one  at  Pontianak 
is  still  in  existence.  Three  years  later  the  first  hydraulic  presses 
were  brought  to  the  colony  from  Europe,  and  their  arrival  marked 
the  real  beginning  of  an  industry  which,  on  February  25,  1920,  had 
16  important  mills,  with  approximately  55  presses  or  expellers  in 
the  less  important  mills. 

The  Oliefabriehen  Insulinde  has  mills  at  Blitar  and  Kediri,  in  the 
Residency  of  Kediri;  at  Banjoewangi,  in  the  Residency  of  Besoeki; 
at  Keboemen,  in  the  Residency  of  Kedoe ;  at  Sentolo,  in  the  Residency 
of  Djokjakarta;  at  Rangkasbitoeng,  in  the  Residency  of  Bantam; 
at  Macassar,  on  the  island  of  Celebes ;  and  at  Padang,  in  the  Sumatra 
West  Coast  Residency.  It  is  claimed  that  these  mills  have  a  total 
capacity  of  700  tons  of  copra  per  day.  The  company  has  tank  in¬ 
stallations  at  Tand j oengpriok  (Batavia’s  harbor) ;  at  Tjilatjap,  in 
southern  Java;  at  Banjoewangi;  and  at  Emmahaven  (Padang’s 
port). 

The  Nederlandsch  Indische  Oliefabriehen  (popularly  known  as 
the  Jurgens  mills)  has  one  large  mill  at  Macassar  and  another  at 
Padang,  and  is  reported  to  have  gained  control  of  the  three  mills  of 
the  United  Java  Oil  Mills  (Ltd.),  located  at  Den  Pasar,  on  the  island 
of  Bali;  at  Banjoewangi;  and  at  Soerabaya. 

The  Oliefabriehen  van  Dongen  has  one  small  mill  at  Blitar,  and 
a  large  mill,  which  has  not  yet  been  put  into  operation  (location 
unknown). 

The  Oliefabrieh  Sedijo  Madjoe  has  one  mill  at  the  town  of  the 
same  name,  in  western  Java.  Other  mills  are  the  u  Wilhelmma  ” 
at  Pontianak;  Tang  Seng  Hie’s  mill  at  Pontianak;  Oliefabrieken 
Bandjaran  at  Bandjaran,  in  Java;  Ho  Djiang’s  mill  at  Kediri,  Java; 
Oliefabrieken  Djepoean  at  Toeloengagoeng,  Java ;  Tan  Kiong  Liang’s 
mill  at  Kertosono,  Java;  Rowenhorst,  Mulder  &  Co.’s  mill  at  Kroja, 
Java;  and  a  mill  (ownership  unknown)  at  Soerabaya. 

In  April,  1921,  there  were  two  oil  mills  in  Singapore,  two  in 
Penang,  one  in  Kuala  Selangor  (Federated  Malay  States),  and  an 
experimental  mill  at  Kent  Station,  Selangor  (Federated  Malay 
States).  The  Singapore  mills  are  owned  and  operated  by  a  Chinese 
company  and  have  a  daily  capacity  of  approximately  40  tons  of  oil. 
The  Penang  mills  are  owned  by  two  Chinese  companies  and  have  a 
capacity  of  about  18  tons  per  day.  The  mill  at  Kuala  Lumpur  is 
owned  by  an  English  corporation.  Its  capacity  is  very  small. 

The  development  of  the  vegetable-oil  milling  industry  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  was  stimulated  by  the  conditions  created 
by  the  World  War.  The  shortage  of  tonnage,  high  freight  rates, 
and  high  prices  of  vegetable  oils  worked  against  the  shipment  of 
copra,  and  the  long  duration  of  these  favorable  conditions  encour¬ 
aged  investors  to  put  large  sums  of  money  into  the  industry  until 
the  milling  capacity  of  the  colony  was  close  to  its  total  producing 
capacity.  When  the  heavy  demand  on  shipping  space  ceased  and 
rates  permitted  the  shipping  of  copra,  the  European  mills  entered 
the  market  in  competition  with  the  mills  of  the  colony,  and  until  the 
present  time  (January,  1922)  have  been  able  to  pay  prices  that  local 
mills  could  not  meet,  with  the  result  that  most  of  these  local  mills 
have  ceased  to  operate. 


96  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  shares  of  one  of  the  principal  oil-milling  concerns,  in  which 
over  30,000,000  florins  (approximately  $12,000,000)  had  been  in¬ 
vested,  sold  in  1920  at  252,  and  dropped  to  85  before  the  end  of  that 
year.  On  October  29,  1921,  they  were  quoted  at  9,  but  revived  to 
121  on  November  22. 

Several  factors  seem  to  favor  the  milling  of  the  copra  near  the 
point  of  consumption.  Copra  contains  approximately  65  per  cent 
of  oil  as  it  reaches  the  world’s  market  cities,  and  extraction  averages 
about  55  per  cent,  leaving  10  per  cent  in  the  cake  besides  the  fiber, 
nitrogen,  proteids,  and  other  contents.  The  residue  finds  a  good 
market  as  oil  cake  for  cattle  feed  in  European  countries,  but  there 
is  no  adequate  market  in  oriental  countries.  Therefore,  the  whole 
product  must  be  shipped  to  the  world’s  markets  either  as  oil  and 
oil  cake  or  as  copra.  The  shipment  of  oil  as  such  involves  the  use  of 
containers,  for  which  freight  must  be  paid  for  the  outward  as  well 
as  the  homeward  voyage,  and  thus  far  no  wood  has  been  found  in 
the  Tropics  suitable  for  making  barrels  that  will  hold  vegetable  oil. 

MARKET  FOR  COPRA  CAKE. 

There  is  no  adequate  market  for  copra  cake  in  the  colony,  and  very 
little  movement  is  reported  in  the  Soerabaya  market.  Some  sales 
have  been  made  to  the  agricultural  industries  for  fertilizer,  and  the 
United  States  has  entered  the  market  from  time  to  time,  but  only 
for  short  periods.  The  following  table  shows  the  quotations  on  the 
Soerabaya  market  since  1919  in  florins  per  picul  (1  florin=$0.402 ; 
1  picul=136  pounds)  : 


Date. 

Florins 
per  picul. 

Date. 

Florins 
per  picul. 

Date. 

Florins 
per  picul. 

1919. 

November  4 . 

5.30 

1920. 

August  5 . 

4.00 

1921. 

June  14 . 

3.  25 

'NTnvamhpr  1C* 

5.50 

August  12 . 

2. 50 

June  28 . 

3.25 

3.25 

Nnvfimbw  19 . 

5.00 

August  24 . 

4.00 

July  12 . 

November  26 . 

4. 50 

November  16 . 

5.00 

July  26 . 

4.  50 

December  3 . 

Dppp.mhpr  10 

4  50 
4.  50 

1921. 

August  2 . 

August  9 . 

3.50 
4. 00 

Dftcpmbpr  17. . 

4.  50 

January  25 . 

1.50 

August  16 . 

4.  50 

Dpppmhpr  94 . 

4. 50 

February  15 . 

2.  25 

August  23 . 

4. 50 

February  24 . 

April  26 . 

3.  75 
3. 00 

September  13 . 

October  11 . 

5.50 
4.  50 

OIL-CONTAINING  SEEDS. 


SESAME  SEED. 


The  exports  of  sesame  seed  for  the  whole  colony  during  the  period 
1916  to  1919  and  for  Java  and  Madoera  only  for  1920  and  the  first 
nine  months  of  1921,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

1921 

(9  months).1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1,660 
300 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
ATI 
1,452 

Metric  tons. 
178 
1,032 

Metric  tons. 

Singapore . 

Hongkong . 

721 

15 

560 

14 

590 

All  other . 

347 

Total . 

2, 307 

736 

574 

1,929 

1,210 

590 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


97 


In  his  book  on  the  oil  industry,  Mr.  B.  Streefland  estimates  the 
production  of  Java  at  2,500  tons.  This  estimate  must  be  taken  with 
reservations.  He  gives  a  partial  analysis  as  follows:  Water,  7  per 
cent;  fat,  53  per  cent;  ash,  6.9  per  cent;  nitrogen,  3.6  per  cent. 
Several  varieties  are  grown,  the  inferior  qualities  having  thick 
skins  and  a  low  percentage  of  oil.  The  white  and  red-brown  ( Sesa - 
mum  indicum  L.)  are  the  best  varieties  and  are  exported  chiefly  to 
Singapore. 

SOYA  BEANS. 

Mr.  B.  Streefland,  in  his  book  on  the  oil  industry,  estimates  the 
production  of  Java  at  68,730  tons  of  soya  beans,  there  being  no  pro¬ 
duction  in  the  Outer  Possessions.  This  estimate  must  be  taken  with 
reservations.  In  the  same  publication  a  partial  analysis  is  given, 
based  oil  soya  beans  containing  12  per  cent  shell  and  88  per  cent 
kernel.  Analysis  of  the  shell:  Water,  7.8  per  cent;  fat,  3.4  per  cent; 
ash,  2.3  per  cent;  nitrogen,  1.4  per  cent.  Analysis  of  the  kernel: 
Water,  10  per  cent;  fat,  19.2  per  cent;  ash,  2.2  per  cent;  nitrogen, 
6.1  per  cent. 

Soya  beans  have  been  imported  extensively  by  or  for  the  oil-milling 
companies.  Imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  for  the  first  nine  months 
of  1921  more  than  doubled  those  for  1920,  imports  for  the  latter 
year  amounting  to  32,128  tons,  as  compared  with  67,273  for  the  nine 
months  of  1921. 

KAPOK  SEEDS. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  Exporters’  Directory  is  an  official 
statement  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  Government  regarding  kapok 
seeds  and  their  use : 

Undecorticated  kapok  seeds  contain  23  per  cent  of  a  nondrying,  yellow  oil, 
free  from  any  rancid  taste  or  smell,  and  which  bears  great  similarity  to  refined 
cotton  oil. 

A  part  of  the  kapok-seed  crop  is  used  in  Java.  If  hydraulic  presses  are  used, 
18  per  cent  of  oil  can  be  produced,  and  by  extraction  22  per  cent. 

The  residue  is  used  in  Java  as  a  manure,  which  contains  between  4  and  4^ 
per  cent  of  nitrogen.  In  Europe  it  is  used  as  a  cattle  food,  and  7  per  cent  of 
fat  is  in  that  case  left  in  the  cakes,  so  that  the  total  contents  of  proteins 
amount  to  28  per  cent. 

Exports  of  kapok  seeds  from  Java  and  Madoera  for  the  years 
1916  to  1920,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1916 

1917 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
6, 198 
31 
2,334 

Metric  tons. 
1,282 
32 

Metric  tons. 
4,075 

Metric  tons. 
626 
62 
11,284 
21 
524 
456 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

4, 536 
360 

Norway . 

Singapore . 

Japan. . 

47 

29 

All  other . 

395 

3 

Total . 

8, 958 

1,317 

9, 047 

12,973 

In  1918  all  of  the  seeds  were  milled  in  the  colony  or  held  for 
export  in  1919,  as  shipping  operations  were  interrupted  by  the  war. 

Mr.  Streefland  estimates  the  production  at  21,800  tons,  or  146 
pounds  of  seed  to  100  pounds  of  kapok  produced.  These  production 


98  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

figures  may  be  questioned,  but  the  percentage  of  seeds  to  kapok  is  a 
fair  estimate  for  rough  calculation. 

CASTOR  BEANS. 

There  is  but  a  limited  production  of  castor  beans,  due  princi¬ 
pally  to  uncertain  rainfall.  A  great  many  varieties  are  cultivated, 
but  only  a  few  of  these  are  suitable  for  export.  In  the  following 
table  are  shown  the  exports  by  countries : 


Countries. 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands  . . . . 

Metric  tons. 
898 

Metric  tons. 
101 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
519 

Metric  tons . 
134 

Franep.  . 

40 

"British  Tndia . 

225 

Anstralia .  . 

774 

347 

194 

287 

863 

All  other.  .  . . 

1 

334 

366 

186 

51 

Total . 

1,713 

782 

660 

1,217 

1,048 

These  figures  show  Australia  to  be  a  consistent  purchaser,  taking 
almost  the  entire  export  in  1920,  successfully  competing  with  the 
European  markets  during  that  year. 

In  his  book  on  the  oil  industry,  written  in  1917,  Mr.  B.  Streefland 
gives  the  production  of  castor  beans  as  5,500  metric  tons,  but  this 
figure  should  be  taken  with  reservations.  That  publication  contains 
a  partial  analysis  based  on  castor  beans  containing  20  per  cent  shell 
and  80  per  cent  kernel.  Analysis  of  the  shell:  Water,  9.5  per  cent; 
fat,  3.3  per  cent ;  ash,  5.3  per  cent;  nitrogen,  0.9  per  cent.  Analysis  of 
the  kernel:  Water,  4.2  per  cent;  fat,  59.1  per  cent;  nitrogen,  4  per 
cent. 

PEANUTS. 

Small  quantities  of  peanuts  are  grown  for  export  in  Sumatra  and 
Bali  and  Lombok,  but  by  far  the  greater  quantity  is  grown  in  Java. 
The  culture  is  entirely  a  native  one.  The  crops  are  grown  on  dry 
fields  and  on  sugar  lands  immediately  after  the  sugar  crop  is  off  and 
before  the  rice  crops  are  put  in.  When  the  oil  mills  are  operating, 
considerable  quantities  are  pressed  in  J ava.  According  to  an  official 
Dutch  statement,  it  takes  approximately  100  pounds  of  unshelled 
nuts  to  yield  from  75  to  79  pounds  of  shelled  nuts. 

The  exports  of  shelled  peanuts  in  1913  and  from  1917  to  1920,  by 
countries,  were  as  follows : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 » 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
16 
1,024 
294 
25 
1,187 
3,485 

Metrietons. 

352 

301 

436 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,919 
967 
1,298 

Metrietons. 

1,293 

2,140 

1,211 

United  States . 

46 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

France . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

4, 929 
25 

4, 584 
100 

4,505 

3, 806 

Japan . 

Australia . 

164 

62 

All  other . 

317 

209 

309 

128 

Total . 

6,348 

6,252 

5,039 

8,827 

8,676 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

6,277 

71 

6,223 

29 

5,012 

27 

8,811 

16 

8,676 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


99 


Exports  of  unshelled  peanuts  in  1913  and  from  1917  to  1920,  by 
countries, 'were  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  i 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
93 

Metric  tons. 
149 
25 
25 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
2, 459 
75 
609 

Metric  tons. 
6, 144 
50 
360 

United  States . 

Great,  Britain . 

143 
1,202 
6,393 
1,310 
61 
42 
4, 541 

Germany  and  Austria  - . - _ _ 

France . 

203 

186 

Italy . 

Portugal . 

Othp.r  "R  n  rope . 

Singapore,  Penang,  and  Hongkong . 

3,891 

471 

21 

2,636 

234 

5, 102 
131 
37 

2,612 

144 

Australia . 

New  Zealand . 

Japan . 

165 

6 

All  other . 

8 

26 

23 

27 

Total . 

13, 793 

4, 608 

3,041 

8,436 

9,726 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

11,244 

2,549 

3,656 

952 

2, 170 
871 

6, 091 
2,345 

9,726 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  shortage  of  tonnage  during  the  latter  years  of  the  war  was 
responsible  for  the  falling  off  in  1917  and  1918.  The  unusual  ex¬ 
port  of  decorticated  nuts  in  1919  was  due  in  part  to  the  need  of  econ¬ 
omizing  freight  space.  Normally  considerable  quantities  of  the 
decorticated  nuts  find  a  market  in  the  United  States  and  but  minor 
quantities  of  the  unshelled  nuts.  Continental  Europe  took  a  large 
share  of  both  grades  in  pre-war  years,  but  in  the  war  years  Singapore 
was  the  principal  port  of  first  destination  for  both  grades. 

The  total  area  m  peanuts  in  Java  and  Madoera  is  given  by  Mr. 
B.  Streefland,  in  his  treatise  on  the  oil  industry,  as  270,082  bouws 
(472,643  acres)  and  the  production  as  approximately  3,078,227  piculs 
(189,945  metric  tons).  As  he  gives  no  year  for  this  acreage  and  for 
other  reasons,  these  figures  should  be  taken  with  reservations.  There 
is,  nevertheless,  a  considerable  consumption  of  this  product,  and 
large  quantities  have  been  pressed  by  the  oil  mills  during  the  years 
succeeding  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

RUBBER. 

In  British  Malaya  rubber  is  grown  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
mountains,  which  divide  the  peninsula  in  two  unequal  portions,  the 
most  extensive  cultivation  being  in  the  States  of  Perak,  Selangor, 
and  Negri  Sembilan  and  the  Crown  colonies  of  Penang,  Province 
Wellesley,  Malacca,  and  Singapore.  The  areas  under  rubber  in 
Johore  and  Kedah  are  growing  in  extent.  There  are  some  planta¬ 
tions  in  Pahang,  Trengganoe,  and  Kelantan,  but  they  are  few  as 
compared  with  the  western  part  of  the  peninsula. 

In  British  North  Borneo  are  some  well-developed  plantations, 
there  being  two  in  Sarawak,  near  Kuching,  the  capital  of  that  State. 

In  the  British  possessions,  especially  on  the  peninsula,  there  is  a 
large  native  production  of  rubber,  which  generally  comes  to  market 
in  the  form  of  “  blankets,”  or  smooth-rolled  sheets  and  only  sun  dried. 
This  is  remilled  and  enters  the  world’s  markets  as  “  blanket  crepe.” 


19878°— 23 - 8 


100  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

CULTIVATION  OF  RUBBER. 

Hevea  rubber  was  planted  in  the  botanical  gardens  at  Buitenzorg 
as  early  as  1875  from  seeds  brought  from  Brazil",  and  at  several  pe¬ 
riods  later  seeds  were  brought  from  Kew  Gardens  and  planted  in  an 
experimental  way,  but  the  first  serious  efforts  of  Dutch  planters  were 
with  the  varieties  known  as  Ficus  elastica ,  Ceara  ( Manihot  glaziovii ), 
and  Castilloa.  About  1905  it  was  realized  that  the  variety  known 
as  Hevea  was  better  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  by  1910  con¬ 
siderable  areas  of  this  rubber  were  under  cultivation. 

At  that  time  but  little  was  known  about  the  tree  and  no  serious 
attempt  was  made  at  seed  or  nursery  selection,  but  since  1913,  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  J.  P.  S.  Cramer,  Chief  of  the  Division  of  Seed 
Selection  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  serious  efforts  have 
been  made  to  evolve  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  tree,  with  consid¬ 
erable  success.  Several  planters’  societies  have  been  formed  and  sci¬ 
entific  staffs  and  proof  stations  have  been  developed  for  the  study  of 
the  Hevea  tree.  To-day  there  are  stations  at  Dj ember,  in  Besoeki 
Residency;  at  Malang,  the  center  of  a  large  rubber-producing  dis¬ 
trict;  at  Buitenzorg  and  Batavia,  in  west  Java;  knd  one  at  Medan, 
in  the  East  Coast  district  of  Sumatra.  Most  of  these  stations  are 
working  independently  of  each  other,  but  there  is  an  interchange  of 
the  knowledge  gained.  They  are  supported  by  a  voluntary  tax  on 
the  acreage  planted  and  by  a  subsidy  from  the  Government. 

The  seed  division  of  the  Government  has  extended  its  work  to  the 
plantations,  and  many  of  the  planters,  through  the  impetus  given  by 
their  societies,  have  taken  an  active  interest  in  the  development  of 
plants  with  known  high  production  and  resistance  to  the  various  dis¬ 
eases.  Experiments  in  grafting  and  marcotting  are  being  carried 
on,  and  it  is  hoped  that  these  will  produce  larger  yields  of  latex  and 
afford  greater  security  against  the  many  diseases,  but  this  work  is  at 
present  in  the  experimental  stage. 

In  the  earlier  years  there  was  an  apparent  effort  to  plant  as  many 
trees  as  possible  in  a  given  area.  This  resulted  in  depriving  the  trees 
of  air  and  the  development  of  diseases,  due  to  dampness.  A  reaction 
from  this  caused  a  very  wide  planting,  as  much  in  some  cases  as 
20  by  32  feet,  but  this  very  wide  planting  did  not  gain  many  advo¬ 
cates,  and  to-day  the  most  popular  width  in  Java  is  12  by  24  feet. 
This  system  allows  for  the  elimination  of  poor  or  sickly  trees  during 
the  time  of  the  development  of  the  plantation  and  is  recommended  by 
the  proof  stations  until  such  time  as  plants  are  developed  of  a  known 
quality. 

Tapping  begins  as  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  the  trees  reach  6 
inches  in  diameter,  measured  3  feet  from  the  ground.  This  generally 
is  during  the  sixth  year.  By  this  time  many  of  the  trees  have  been 
cut  out,  and  from  then  on  a  thinning-out  process  must  be  continued 
to  give  the  better  producing  trees  sufficient  light  and  air. 

Many  theories  regarding  the  source  of  life  of  the  Hevea  rubber  tree 
have  been  entertained,  some  planters  claiming  that  the  tree  gets  its 
greatest  sustenance  through  the  leaves.  Scientific  experiments,  how¬ 
ever,  have  demonstrated  that  its  root  system  is  quite  as  important 
to  the  Hevea  as  to  other  trees.  Seedlings  always  have  one  tap  root, 
the  length  of  which  depends  on  the  depth  to  which  it  has  to  go  for 
water.  The  other  roots  lie  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  care 
must  be  taken  so  as  not  to  injure  these  surface  roots  in  cultivating. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


101 


There  is  little  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  such  as  is  done  is  with  a 
“patchoel”  (a  heavy  native  hoe).  In  the  hilly  sections  the  most 
serious  problem  is  to  prevent  erosion  of  the  soil,  and  as  plowing  or 
u  patchoeling  ”  tends  to  increase  the  erosion  it  is  not  done  on  these 
hill  estates.  Lateral  drains  or  pits  are  dug  to  retard  the  flow  of  water 
during  the  heavy  rains,  in  some  cases  legumes  and  other  vegetation 
being  planted  to  hold  the  soil  in  place.  On  steep  inclines  terracing 
is  resorted  to. 

In  Java  it  is  the  custom  to  interplant  coffee  between  the  rows  of 
rubber  trees  soon  after  they  are  set  out.  The  coffee  trees  quickly 
provide  sufficient  shade  to  make  weeding  unnecessary.  The  returns 
from  the  coffee  trees  begin  about  30  months  after  planting,  and  in 
this  way  the  capital  charge  of  the  plantation  is  kept  at  a  minimum. 
The  ground  is  only  partly  cleared,  leaving  the  large  logs  and  stumps 
to  rot  before  being  removed. 

In  the  Government  of  Sumatra  East  Coast,  where  large  areas  are 
under  rubber,  it  is  the  custom  to  clean  the  ground  more  thoroughly, 
and,  on  account  of  scarcity  of  labor,  interplanting  is  seldom  done. 
In  the  Residencies  of  Sumatra  West  Coast,  Palembang,  and  the  Lam- 
pong  districts,  where  labor  is  more  plentiful,  coffee  is  interplanted  as 
in  Java. 

In  Java  and  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  there  is  no  native  cultivation, 
and  in  the  Sumatra  West  Coast  Residency  there  is  but  little.  In  the 
Residencies  of  Djambi  and  Riouw,  in  Sumatra,  and  in  the  Residency 
of  West  Borneo,  however,  there  is  considerable  native  production, 
which  goes  to  the  factories  at  Singapore  for  remilling  into  qualities 
suitable  for  the  world  markets. 

In  British  Malaya  the  land  is  seldom  cleared  clean,  and  it  is  not  the 
custom  to  plant  a  “  catch  crop  ”  (a  crop  that  will  yield  returns  during 
part  of  the  time  required  for  the  rubber  trees  to  mature) .  There  are 
considerable  areas  under  rubber  in  the  low-lying  districts,  where 
drainage  is  one  of  the  chief  problems,  while  in  the  hill  districts  one 
of  the  most  serious  problems  is  the  prevention  of  soil  erosion.  Turn¬ 
ing  the  soil  has  only  been  done  in  an  experimental  way  on  a  few 
estates,  and  it  has  not  been  announced  that  any  beneficial  effects  have 
been  found. 

PLANTERS’  SOCIETIES. 

The  following  societies  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  have  been 
formed  for  the  purposes  indicated: 

Nederlandsch  Indische  V ereeniging  voor  den  Rubberhandel,  Batavia,  Java. — 
Directors  of  Het  Rubber  Veem ;  packers  and  forwarders  of  rubber  for  members. 

Gentraal  Rubber  station,  Buitenzorg,  Java. — Scientific  research  and  analysis 
of  product  of  estates. 

Proef station,  Malang,  Java. — Scientific  research,  especially  with  respect  to 
cultivation  and  to  prevention  and  cure  of  diseases. 

Rubber  Plantersvereeniging,  Bandoeng,  Java. — Am  association  of  rubber 
planters  for  protection  of  mutual  interests. 

Rubber  proef  station  West  Java,  Batavia,  Java. — Scientific  research. 

Algemeene  Vereeniging  van  Rubberplanters  ter  Oostkust  van  Sumatra  (A. 
V.  R.  0.  &.),  Medan,  Sumatra. — An  association  of  planters  in  the  Sumatra  East 
Coast  for  protection  of  mutual  interests  and  to  carry  on  research  work  through 
its  subsidiary,  called  Algemeen  Proefstation  der  A.  V.  R.  O.  S. 

The  Rubber  Growers’  Association  of  London,  England,  is  an  as¬ 
sociation  of  owners  ofvestates  located  principally  in  British  Malaya. 
Its  Far  Eastern  office  is  in  Kuala  Lumpur. 


102  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  Planters’  Association  of  Malaya  is  a  British  Malayan  organi¬ 
zation  with  offices  in  Kuala  Lumpur.  Its  constituent  associations 
are: 

Bahau-Kuala  Pilah  District  Planters’  Association. 

Batang  Padang  District  Planters’  Association. 

Batu  Tiga  District  Planters’  Association. 

Central  Pahang  Planters’  Association.* 

Central  Perak  Planters’  Association. 

Johore  Planters’  Association. 

Kajang  District  Planters’  Association. 

Kapar  District  Planters’  Association. 

Kedah  Planters’  Association. 

Kelantan  Planters’  Association. 

Klang  District  Planters’  Association. 

Kuala  Langat  District  Planters’  Association. 

Kuala  Lumpur  District  Planters’  Association. 

Kuala  Selangor  District  Planters’  Association. 

Lower  Perak  Planters’  Association. 

Malay  Peninsula  Agricultural  Association. 

Negri  Sembilan  Planters’  Association. 

Taiping  Planters’  Association. 

Ulu  Selangor  District  Planters’  Association. 

The  Malacca  Planters’  Association  is  not  affiliated  with  any  of 
the  preceding  associations.  Its  offices  are  at  Malacca,  in  the  Straits 
Settlements. 

The  Incorporated  Society  of  Planters,  founded  “to  secure  and 
promote  the  personal  and  professional  interests  of  all  planters  in 
Malay,”  is  not  affiliated  with  the  above  organizations. 

The  Klang  Chinese  Rubber  Dealers  and  Growers’  Associations, 
of  Klang,  Selangor,  Federated  Malay  States,  is  not  affiliated  with 
the  preceding  organizations. 

There  is  little  or  no  research  work  carried  on  by  the  Malay  Penin¬ 
sula  planters’  societies,  their  object  being  to  protect  their  economic 
interests  rather  than  to  develop  the  scientific  phases  of  the  industry. 

AREAS  PLANTED  IN  RUBBER. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  acreage  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  planted  in  rubber,  the  total  areas  in  bearing,  and  a  subdivision 
of  these  areas  in  the  various  kinds  of  trees.  The  prices  of  Ficus 
elastica  ruling  during  the  past  three  year  have  not  been  high  enough 
to  pay  for  tapping,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  this  quality  will  ever  again 
be  brought  on  the  market.  The  acreage  in  Ceara  and  Castilloa  are 
rapidly  being  replanted  in  Hevea.  The  areas  in  Hevea  are  the  only 
ones  to  be  considered.  These  figures  are  official,  but  are  of  doubt¬ 
ful  value  for  close  figuring,  as  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  under 
whose  direction  they  were  compiled,  acknowledges  that  they  are 
incorrect.  They  were  published  as  of  May,  1920.  More  reliable 
^figures  for  the  whole  area  are  not  available. 


Agricultural  products. 


103 


Acres  planted  in — 


Territories. 


Total 

acres 

planted. 


Acres 

pro¬ 

ducing 

rubber. 


Hevea. 


Ficus 

elastics. 


Ceara 

(Mani- 

hot). 


Castillos. 


JAVA  AND  MADOERA. 


On  estates  exclusively  in  rubber . . 

Mixed  with  one  other  culture  but  not  in- 

terplanted . . 

Mixed  with  two  other  cultures  but  not  in- 

terplanted . . 

Mixed  with  three  other  cultures  but  not 

interplanted . . 

On  estates  cultivating  part  of  area  in  rub¬ 
ber  exclusively  and  part  interplanted: 

Rubber  exclusively . . 

Rubber  interplanted . . 

Total . . 

OUTER  POSSESSIONS. 

On  estates  exclusively  in  rubber . . 

Mixed  with  one  other  culture  but  not  in¬ 
terplanted . . 

Mixed  with  two  other  cultures  but  not  in¬ 
terplanted . . 

Mixed  with  three  other  cultures  but  not 

interplanted . 

Rubber  on  estates  cultivating  part  of  areas 
exclusively  in  rubber  and  part  inter¬ 
planted: 

Rubber  exclusively . 

Rubber  interplanted . 

Total . 

Grand  total . 


94, 362 
36,087 
2,140 
4,554 


60, 121 
20,418 
581 
3,162 


92, 427 
33,384 
1, 710 
4,490 


1,428 

2,414 

360 

62 


505 

292 


69 


80,615 
154, 976 


372, 734 


337,048 

39,687 

8,164 

872 


45. 942 

37.943 


469, 656 


842, 390 


55,776 
76, 575 


216, 633 


211,640 
24,822 
3, 852 
687 


28, 385 
11,  332 


280, 718 


497, 351 


75, 572 
153, 303 


360,  886 


335, 716 
39, 514 
8,154 
872 


44,044 

37,903 


466, 203 


827,089 


4, 260 
329 

8,853 


1,263 

173 

10 


1,898 

3, 344 
12, 197 


781 

556 


2,135 


69 


27 

96 

2,231 


788 

857 


15 

15 

872 


The  areas  planted  in  rubber  in  the  Government  of  Sumatra  East 
Coast,  which  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  are  included  in  the 
preceding  table ;  but  as  they  were  published  by  the  Medan  Merchants’ 
Association  ( Handels vereeniging),  which  has  full  access  to  the  cor¬ 
rect  details,  they  are  given  as  supplementary  but  reliable  figures : 


Nationality. 

Acres 

planted. 

Per 

cent. 

Dutch . 

114,212 

30 

British . 

105, 838 

28 

Netherlands  East  Indian . 

26, 390 

7 

American . 

63,  390 

17 

Belgian  and  French . 

42,  710 

12 

Japanese . 

8,  525 

2 

Nationality. 

Acres 

planted. 

Per 

cent. 

German . 

4,315 

1 

Swiss . 

3, 555 

1 

Shanghai  companies . 

5, 188 

2 

Total . 

374, 123 

100 

There  are  differences  in  the  opinions  of  the  various  authorities 
on  rubber  as  to  the  acreage  planted  in  British  Malaya.  The  Govern¬ 
ment’s  figures  are  seriously  challenged.  The  following  table  is  taken 
from  The  Planter,  the  official  journal  of  the  Incorporated  Society  of 
Planters,  and  is  given  as  of  December  31,  1919.  These  figures  are 
submitted  not  as  an  authoritative  statement  but  as  a  carefully  pre- 

gared  estimate.  They  do  not  include  the  plantations  of  British  North 
orneo,  but  those  estates  of  British  Malaya  comprising  over  100  acres. 


104  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Distribution. 

Federated 

Malay 

States. 

Straits 

Settle¬ 

ments. 

Johore. 

Kelantan, 
Kedan,  and 
Trengganoe. 

m- 

Total. 

Acreage  in  possession . 

Acreage  planted . 

Acreage  producing . 

1, 167, 043 
736, 742 
490, 372 

273, 353 
178,524 
114, 516 

364, 270 
174, 820 
96, 324 

286, 869 
146, 720 
50,774 

2,091,535 
1, 236, 806 
751,986 

For  estates  of  less  than  100  acres,  The  Planter  gives  the  total 
acreage  as  390,000,  consisting  of  220,000  acres  bearing  and  170,000 
acres  not  bearing. 


THE  WORLD’S  RUBBER  ACREAGE. 

According  to  the  “  World’s  Rubber  Position,”  which  is  considered 
to  be  the  standard  authority  on  world  conditions  in  the  rubber  mar¬ 
ket,  there  were  116,500  acres  under  plantation  rubber  in  1905, 
2,181,050  acres  in  1914,  and  3,069,750  acres  in  1921.  These  areas 
are  roughly  divided  into  the  holdings  of  the  “  sterling  companies,” 
the  “  dollar  companies,”  and  the  Chinese  and  natives  in  a  proportion 
of  one-third,  or  1,000,000  acres  each.  The  Chinese  holdings  are  prin¬ 
cipally  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  small  areas  in  British  Borneo, 
while  the  native  holdings  are  on  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  in  the 
Dutch  Residencies  of  Palembang,  Djambi,  and  Riouw. 

For  the  year  ended  December  31,  1921,  approximately  92  per  cent 
of  the  total  rubber  produced  in  the  world  came  from  the  plantations 
of  the  Orient,  while  7  per  cent  came  from  Brazil  and  1  per  cent  from 
all  other  sources.  Of  this  the  United  States  bought  59  per  cent,  the 
United  Kingdom  14  per  cent,  Germany  7  per  cent,  F ranee  5  per  cent, 
and  the  rest  was  scattered. 

CHEMICALS  USED  IN  THE  PREVENTION  AND  CURE  OF  DISEASES. 

The  diseases  known  to  attack  Hevea  trees  in  Java  are  generally  of 
no  importance.  There  is  only  one  disease  which  has  recently  caused 
alarm.  This  is  known  as  “brown  bark”  or  “bruine  binnenbast.” 
When  trees  are  attacked  the  bark  near  the  tapping  cut  shows  brown¬ 
ish  specks  and  ceases  to  yield.  A  certain  number  of  the  diseased 
trees  later  on  develop  wood  burs  in  the  bark,  by  which  the  tapping 
surface  is  deformed  in  such  a  way  that  tapping  becomes  impossible. 

This  disease  has  lost  much  of  its  alarming  aspect  since  it  is  proved 
that  it  is  a  physiological  disease  caused  by  too  severe  tapping.  It 
can  be  prevented  by  tapping  on  alternate  days  or  by  reducing  the 
number  of  tapping  cuts  and  the  length  of  the  cuts.  Resting  the 
trees  for  about  six  weeks  during  the  “wintering  season,”  when  they 
drop  their  leaves,  has  also  been  found  to  be  a  successful  means  of 
preventing  this  disease.  Diseased  trees  are  cured  by  scraping  away 
the  diseased  bark  to  prevent  the  formation  of  burs  and  by  covering 
the  scraped  portion  with  hot  tar. 

Another  disease  which  causes  some  trouble,  especially  during  a 
period  of  wet  weather,  is  a  fungus,  a  species  of  phytophthora,  known 
as  “  stripe  canker.”  This  fungus  attacks  the  newly  tapped  surface, 
appearing  in  black  lines  or  patches,  and  kills  the  bark  if  not  treated, 
or  at  least  prevents  an  even  bark  renewal.  It  can  be  prevented 
absolutely  by  applying  to  the  newly  tapped  surface  a  solution  of  5 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


105 


per  cent  creolin,  carbolineum,  or  some  other  disinfectant  every  day 
during  wet  weather.  Diseased  trees  are  treated  with  a  20  per  cent 
solution  of  the  same  disinfectants. 

If  an  attack  of  “  stripe  canker  ”  is  neglected,  the  phytophthora 
may  spread  in  the  bark  not  yet  tapped,  killing  it  and  causing  what 
is  known  as  “  patch  canker.”  This  form  of  the  disease  is  cured  by 
cutting  away  all  diseased  bark  and  applying  tar  to  the  wound. 

The  different  root  diseases,  the  “white”  fungus  ( Fomes  lignosus ) 
and  the  “brown”  fungus  ( Fomes  lamcensis ),  occur  only  on  young 
fields  where,  when  clearing  the  land,  the  stumps  of  the  forest  trees 
have  been  left  or  where  the  soil  is  not  properly  drained.  “  Wet  rot” 
(Fomes  pseudo f err eus)  and  “dry  rot”  ( Ustulina  zonata)  are  only 
seldom  met  with.  All  root  diseases  are  dealt  with  in  the  same  way. 
The  diseased  trees  are  isolated  from  the  healthy  ones  by  a  trench 
2  to  3  feet  deep.  If  the  attack  has  not  advanced  too  far  the  diseased 
roots  are  bared,  scraped,  and  treated  with  tar. 

A  leaf  disease  caused  by  mildew  (Oidium  sp.)  was  discovered  two 
years  ago.  It  causes  the  newly  developed  young  leaves  to  fall.  In 
some  years  this  disease  may  become  troublesome,  while  in  others 
there  is  hardly  any  trace  of  it. 

Corticium  salmonicolor  (“pink  disease”  or  “djamoer  cepas”)  is  a 
fungus  which  attacks  the  tree  where  the  branches  divide,  but  it  is 
easy  of  control  by  the  application  of  tar  to  the  diseased  surface. 

Thyridaiia  tarda  (“die  back”  or  “  instervingszickte  ”)  is  a  disease 
which  attacks  young  trees  and  is  sometimes  fatal.  It  causes  a  “  die 
back  ”  at  the  top  of  the  branches  and  is  easily  controlled  by  cutting 
away  the  diseased  portions. 

Gloeosporium  alborubrum  kills  young  shoots  and  causes  a  leaf  fall 
during  very  wet  weather. 

Phyllosticta  ramicola  kills  the  young  shoots. 

Pestalozzia  plamarum  (Helminthosporium  heveoe)  causes  small 
dead  spots  to  form  on  the  leaves. 

Chemicals  used  in  combating  diseases  in  rubber  trees  are:  Carbo¬ 
lineum  (soluble)  or  carbolineum  plantarium;  carbolineum  heveaum 
(an  English  product) ;  Creoline  (trade  name  for  a  chemical  imported 
usually  from  Australia) ;  Jeyes’  Fluid  (the  trade  name  of  a  British- 
made  disinfectant  widely  used  throughout  the  Orient) ;  Izal  (also 
the  trade  name  of  an  English  product)  ;  Brunoleum  (trade  name  of 
an  English  product)  ;  Solignum  (trade  name)  ;  and  tar  (ordinary 
coal  tar) ,  which  is  bought  from  the  gas  works  in  various  cities. 

The  curative  qualities  in  these  products  are  the  phenols  and  cre- 
sols  contained  therein.  When  these  chemicals  are  for  preventive 
purposes  a  5  per  cent  solution  is  used  and  when  for  curing  diseases 
from  10  to  30  per  cent  is  used,  a  fair  average  being  stated  as  20 
per  cent.  Of  late  years  prevention  and  cure  are  receiving  more  at¬ 
tention  than  formerly,  and  considerable  quantities  of  these  chemicals 
are  used  annually.  Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  cut  out  diseased 
trees,  but  to-day  thinning  out  is  most  carefully  done  and  planters 
go  to  great  lengths  to  save  good  producing  trees. 


106  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A  RUBBER,  COFFEE,  AND  SISAL  ESTATE  IN 

EAST  JAVA. 

In  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  the  estates  depend  for  most  of  their 
labor  on  the  transfer  of  coolies  from  the  thickly  settled  portions 
other  by  the  planter  of  the  East  Coast  Residency  of  Sumatra — the 
planter  handling  free  labor  and  the  planter  handling  contract 
labor.  There  are  almost  as  many  variations  of  these  two  systems 
as  there  are  estates,  but  they  are  all  influenced  by  the  basic  differ¬ 
ences  of  the  terms  of  employment  of  the  labor. 

In  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  the  estates  depend  for  most  of  their 
labor  on  the  transfer  of  coolies  from  the  thickly  settled  portions 
of  Java  under  a  three-year  contract,  and  by  the  terms  of  this  con¬ 
tract  the  laborers  are  subject  to  laws  which  compel  them  to  work 
and  prevent  them  from  leaving  the  estate  until  the  expiration  of 
the  contract.  No  attempt  is  made  by  the  planters  to  learn  the 
various  languages  spoken  by  the  contract  coolies,  all  orders  being 
given  in  the  Malay  tongue,  and  the  laborer  is  looked  upon  as  a 
pawn  to  be  moved  at  the  will  of  the  administrators.  In  Java  the 
planters  are  dealing  with  laborers  who  are  free  to  work  or  not, 
as  their  whims  dictate,  and  the  success  of  estate  administration 
depends  on  the  manager’s  knowledge  of  the  customs  and  language 
of  the  natives  and  his  ability  to  weld  them  into  an  effective  or¬ 
ganization. 

In  describing  labor  conditions  in  Java  but  few  generalizations 
may  be  safely  made,  as  the  character  of  the  population  varies,  and 
even  in  the  strictly  Javanese  districts  there  are  many  variations  in 
custom  and  character.  The  organization  described  in  this  article 
is  on  an  estate  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Javanese  country,  but 
not  entirely  uninfluenced  by  the  immigration  from  Madoera.  The 
manager  of  this  estate,  having  had  full  control  for  20  years,  knows  the 
adat 1  of  his  people  and  the  individual  peculiarities  of  the  heads  of 
families.  This  estate  has  been  described  by  Government  officials  in 
contact  with  the  cultivation  of  rubber  as  having  the  most  perfect 
organization  in  Java.  It  consists  in  all  of  3,449  bouws  (about  6,125 
acres)  divided  into  two  sections,  of  which  2,500  bouws  are  in  rub¬ 
ber  and  coffee  and  550  bouws  in  sisal,  the  balance  including  rice 
fields,  timber,  nurseries,  bamboo,  teak  forests,  pasture,  villages, 
roads,  canals,  etc. 

The  organization  and  duties  of  the  staff  were  described  by  the 
general  manager  of  the  estate  as  follows : 

Accounting  department. — One  bookkeeper,  a  man  of  mixed  blood,  bandies  all 
the  general  accounting,  accumulating  the  reports  sent  in  by  the  various  assist¬ 
ants. 

Garden  assistants. — The  two  head  garden  assistants  are  responsible  to  the 
manager  for  all  of  the  work  outside  of  the  factory,  except  new  construction  of 
buildings,  which  is  in  charge  of  the  chief  factory  assistant. 

The  estate  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  four  and  one  of  three  agricultural 
sections,  each  of  which  is  in  full  charge  of  an  assistant.  One  of  these  sections 
may  include  rubber,  coffee,  sisal,  teak,  bamboo,  a  coagulation  station,  and  nur¬ 
series;  and  the  assistant’s  duties  include  the  supervision  of  garden  work,  road 
building  and  repair,  building  repair,  transportation,  paying  the  labor,  and  keep¬ 
ing  the  section  accounts. 


1  Tribal  customs  which  have  become  laws  to  the  people.  The  “  adat  ”  of  the  people  la 
recognized  in  the  law  of  the  colony  and  is  largely  responsible  for  the  necessity  of  one 
law  for  the  native  and  another  for  the  foreigner. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


107 


Factory  assistants. — The  factory  includes  a  water-power  plant  delivering, 
through  an  American  (Pelton)  water  wheel  and  by  cable,  250  horsepower  to 
the  main  shafting,  and  an  auxiliary  steam  plant  of  150  horsepower  as  a  reserve. 
It  also  includes  a  rubber  mill,  a  coffee  mill,  three  sisal-stripping  machines, 
smokehouses,  drying  fields  and  houses  for  sisal,  drying  floors  and  houses  for 
coffee,  sorting  rooms,  a  blacksmith  shop,  a  machine  shop,  a  brass-fitting  foundry, 
packing  houses,  warehouses,  and  other  factory  equipment.  It  is  in  charge  of  a 
first  assistant  (a  machinist),  with  a  European  staff  consisting  of  a  machinist 
and  an  apprentice  assistant.  The  apprentice  assistant  is  destined  to  take 
charge  of  a  garden  section  either  on  this  estate  or  another  one  owned  by  the 
same  company. 

Native  staff. — The  Javanese  staff  is  the  backbone  of  the  organization.  Many 
of  the  “mandoers”  (foremen)  are  fully  capable  of  managing  a  section  and  but 
for  their  unreliability  in  money  matters  would  be  promoted  to  assistant  posi¬ 
tions.  When  the  assistants  are  absent  for  short  periods,  the  section  work 
goes  on  without  serious  friction  or  slacking  down. 

The  tappers  are  highly  skilled  and  only  the  more  intelligent  men  and 
women  can  qualify  for  this  work,  which  requires  a  light  touch  and  a  judgment 
that  is  almost  instinctive.  Tapping  begins  at  daybreak  and  is  finished  before 
noon.  The  latex  brought  in  by  each  tapper  is  weighed  and  a  sample  of  50 
grams  is  coagulated,  mangled,  and  weighed.  Payment  is  made  on  the  basis 
of  the  actual  rubber  brought  in,  according  to  the  analysis  and  taking  into  con¬ 
sideration  the  age  of  the  trees  and  the  configuration  of  the  land  on  which  the 
tapper  has  worked.  An  expert  tapper  earns  from  70  to  80  florin  cents  per  day, 
while  beginners  get  50  cents.  Tapping  schools  are  maintained,  and  coolies 
entering  this  school  are  paid  while  learning. 

Coffee  harvesters. — Coffee  harvesters  are  generally  women  and  children. 
They  are  paid  from  60  florin  cents  to  1.20  florins  per  picul  (136  pounds)  of 
berries  delivered  to  the  factory  or  central  station.  Many  of  the  pickers  are 
rapid  workers  and  the  best  of  them  are  able  to  earn  u*>  to  1  florin  per  day, 
especially  when  there  is  a  heavy  crop. 

Sisal  harvesters. — The  harvesting  of  sisal  is  work  that  is  not  sought  by  the 
Javanese.  Harvesters  are  paid  7  florin  cents  per  picul  of  leaves  delivered  to 
the  factory.  They  work  in  groups  of  four  and  generally  harvest  40  piculs  per 
day.  This  gives  about  70  florin  cents  daily  per  man. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  management  to  put  as  much  of  the  work 
as  possible  on  a  “task”  basis.  Weeding,  digging,  planting  of  sisal, 
and  what  plowing  is  done  are  all  on  a  “  task  ”  basis,  as  is  much  of  the 
road  work.  Nursery  work  (which  requires  a  high  degree  of  skill), 
disease  fighting,  and  other  work  demanding  a  maximum  of  care  and 
skill  are  paid  for  at  a  higher  rate  on  a  day  basis. 

There  is  complaint  throughout  J ava  and  Sumatra  of  a  shortage  of 
competent  assistants.  Various  methods  of  bonus  payments  are  in 
force,  generally  based  on  the  dividends  paid  by  the  companies,  but 
these  bonuses  are  not  paid  on  all  of  the  estates.  Young  Dutchmen 
did  not  come  to  the  colony  during  the  war  years  in  sufficient  num¬ 
bers  to  fill  the  vacancies,  and  they  are  not  usually  satisfied  with  the 
wages  paid  when  they  do  come.  The  manager  of  the  estate  under 
review  has  drawn  on  the  local  mixed-blood  population  to  fill  the 
shortage  of  assistants,  and  he  claims  that  these  men  when  handled 
intelligently  are  equal  in  efficiency  to  the  young  Dutchmen  from  the 
Netherlands.  They  have  the  advantage  of  knowing  all  of  the  native 
dialects  and  customs  and  are  better  able  to  understand  the  Javanese 
character. 

Planters  in  districts  far  removed  from  the  ports  speak  highly  of 
native  labor,  especially  for  work  which  is  of  a  routine  nature.  The 
J avanese  are  not  physically  strong  and  are  best  suited  to  agricultural 


108  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

pursuits,  while  the  Madoerese  are  stronger  physically  and  more  alert 
mentally.  Both  of  these  types  are  found  on  this  estate. 

AREA,  CLIMATE,  PRODUCTION,  AND  PRODUCTION  COSTS. 

Comparatively  few  rubber  estates  have  reached  a  point  of  full 
development,  either  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  or  British  Malaya.  The 
estate  under  review  was  converted  from  coffee  to  rubber,  begining  in 
the  earliest  years  of  Hevea  planting  in  the  Orient,  and  to-day  is 
completely  developed  and  brought  to  a  high  state  of  organization. 
In  1918  it  had  the  highest  production  in  Java  of  both  rubber  and 
coffee.  While  the  production  of  rubber  is  the  first  consideration  in 
this  plantation,  coffee  has  been  used  as  a  catch  crop — an  interplanted, 
temporary  culture  producing  during  the  years  in  which  the  ultimate 
culture  is  maturing.  There  still  remain  about  1,000,000  coffee  trees, 
which  are  gradually  being  cut  out. 

The  planting  of  rubber  trees  on  the  estate  in  question  began  in  1902 
and  has  developed  as  follows: 


Years. 

Bouws.1 

Trees. 

Years. 

Bouws.1 

Trees. 

1902  to  1905 . 

2 

71 

503 

264 

296 

219 

823 

233 
9,599 
70, 950 
39, 680 
37, 964 
32, 015 
113,575 

1911  to  1912 . 

41 

101 

144 

11 

2, 475 

7,569 
19, 105 
1  30, 579 

1Q05  t.n  1906 . 

1912  to  1913 . 

1906  to  1907 . 

1915  to  1916 . 

1907  to  1908 . 

1908  to  1909 . 

Destined  for  rubber,  1918  to 
1919 . 

1909  to  1910 . 

1910  to  1911 . 

Total . 

361. 269 

i  Bouw  equals  1.7537  acres;  gross  acreage  including  paths  and  roads;  146  trees  to  the  bouw  or  83  trees  to 
the  acre. 

*  Part  in  bearing. 


Sisal  planting  on  the  estate  under  review  has  been  carried  on  as 
follows : 


Years. 

Bouws. 

Plants. 

1915-16.  . . 

OC 

• 

93,' 555 
286, 380 
242, 403 
237,000 
151, 192 

1916—17 . 

154 

1917-18  . 

130 

1918-19 . 

130 

1919-20 . 

80 

Total . 

542 

1,010,530 

The  various  cultures  of  the  estate  are  distributed  as  follows : 


Rubber - 

Sisal _ 

Timber _ 

Rice  fields _ 

Teak  forests. 
Bamboo _ 


Bouws. 

2,  475 

Nurseries  _ 

542 

Pasture 

IS 

Buildings  and  villages 

216 

Forest  _ 

13 

25 

Total  _ 

Bouws. 

5 

4 

70 

81 


3,  449 


Coffee  is  interplanted  with  the  rubber,  while  sisal  is  planted  on  soil 
not  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  rubber.  The  area  in  rice  is  given  over 
to  the  natives  to  cultivate  for  their  own  benefit,  while  the  teak  is 
grown  for  the  timber,  which  is  used  on  the  estate,  and  the  bamboo  is 
cultivated  for  use  in  building  houses  for  the  natives  on  the  estate. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


109 


This  estate  is  located  at  an  altitude  of  from  1,000  to  1,125  feet,  and 
in  view  of  its  high  production  the  following  record  of  rainfall  is 
interesting : 


Years. 

Rainy 

days. 

Total  fall, 
in  milli¬ 
meters. 

Years. 

Rainy 

days. 

Total  fall, 
in  milli¬ 
meters. 

Average  for  36  years  prior  to 

1916 . 

169 

2,976 

1913  . 

123 

2,333 

1917 . 

203 

3,634 

1913 . 

95 

2,320 

1918 . 

111 

1,844 

1914.  . 

91 

2, 121 

1919 . 

149 

2,913 

1915 . 

140 

2,662 

PRODUCTION  STATISTICS. 

The  production  per  tree  for  the  period  since  1913  shows  a  constant 
increase,  which  is  not  due  to  the  varying  climatic  conditions  but  to 
better  methods  of  cultivation,  the  improvement  in  the  organization 
and  skill  of  the  labor,  and  the  increasing  maturity  of  the  trees.  The 
annual  production  per  tree  since  1913  has  been  as  follows:  1913, 
2.3122  pounds;  1914,  2.7004  pounds;  1915,  2.9655  pounds;  1916, 
3.1975  pounds;  1917,  3.5561  pounds;  1918,  4.6449  pounds;  and  1919, 
5.5117  pounds. 

The  total  production  of  1919  was  1.645,509  pounds  of  dry  rubber, 
1,974  piculs  (268,464  pounds)  of  coffee,  and  1,596  piculs  (217,000 
pounds)  of  sisal  hemp. 

The  1919  production  of  the  various  grades  of  rubber  on  this  estate 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


0 

Grades. 

Pounds. 

Per  cent. 

Grades. 

Pounds. 

Per  cent. 

First  quality: 

Smoked  sheets— 

No.  I . 

No.  II . 

No.  Ill . 

P... 

860,938 
73,069 
18,689 
425, 197 
45, 850 
6,316 
14,779 

1,444, 838 

52. 32 
4. 44 

1. 14 
25.84 
2.  79 
.38 
.90 

87.81 

Second  quality: 

D  •  D •  G . . . . ............. 

D.  D.  G.  red . 

D.  D . 

Total . 

1,354 

47,823 

3,737 

87,711 

0.08 

2.90 

.23 

5.33 

P.  red . 

140,625 
60, 046 

8.54 

3.65 

L.  B . 

T.  "R  rftrl  » 

Third  grade  or  “scrap” . 

Grand  total . 

Total . 

1,645,509 

100.00 

In  1918  the  percentage  of  first-quality  rubber  was  84.07,  while 
11.55  per  cent  was  second-quality  rubber  and  4-38  per  cent  was 
“scrap.”  The  percentages  of  second  and  third  qualities  were  lower 
in  1919  for  the  reason  that  there  was  better  weather  for  tapping —  • 
less  rain  in  the  mornings  between  6  and  11  o’clock. 


110  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA 


ESTATE  EXPENDITURES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  expenditures  on  this  estate  on  ac 
count  of  rubber  during  the  year  1919 : 


Items. 

Cash 

expendi¬ 

ture. 

Cost  per 
pound  of 
rubber. 1 

Weeding,  including  digging 
and  plowing . 

Florins. 

34,002 

3,406 

3,081 

1,080 

9,256 

1,652 

4,291 

248 

944 

1,658 

Florin 

cents. 

Forking  alang-alang  2 . 

Pruning . 

Upkeep^  of  terraces . 

Fighting  pests  and  diseases . . . 

Manuring  (principally  trans¬ 
portation  of  manure  from 
the  villages  to  the  “gar¬ 
dens”)  . 

Thinning  out  trees . 

Fencing^ . 

Nurseries . 

Sundries . 

Total . 

59,618 

3.623 

Tanning . 

134,729 

19,817 

1,808 

1,260 

31 

5,739 

1,050 

Native  supervision . 

Tapping  school . 

Marking  and  numbering  trees. 
Placing  cups . 

Transport  to  factory . 

Wages  of  police . 

Total . 

164, 434 

9. 993 

Labor . . . 

9,987 
29,300 
1, 100 
40 
5, 083 
6, 414 
435 
858 
3, 100 

Chemicals . 

European  supervision . 

Oil,  grease,  and  waste . 

Upkeep  of  machinery . 

Upkeep  of  buildings'. . 

Drying  houses . 

Smokehouses . 

Firewood . 

Total . 

56, 317 

3.  423 

Depreciation  of  cups,  pails,  etc. 
Tapping  knives . 

4,500 

30 

237 

9 

2,274 

Latex  spouts . 

Coconut  shells . 

Repairs  and  sundries . 

Total . 

7,050 

.428 

Cases,  hoop  iron,  and  nails. . . . 
Making  cases . 

27, 767 
1,231 
2,228 

Packing . 

Total . 

31,226 

1.  897 

Cartage  to  station . 

2, 782 
307 

Commission  to  Malang  agent.. 

Total . 

3,089 

.188 

Railway  freight  and  cartage 
to  Soerabaya . 

12,835 

24,683 

.780 

1.500 

Gratuities  to  garden  assist¬ 
ants  and  mandoers . 

GENERAL  EXPENSES. 

European  salaries  and  allow¬ 
ances  . 

63, 796 

Items. 


GENERAL  EXPENSES— COll. 

Native  staff . 

Government  “verponding” 
tax,  retroactive  to  1918 
(29,211.75  florins  per  year)... 

Upkeep  of  roads . 

Upkeep  of  bridges . 

Upkeep  of  watercourses  and 

reservoir . 

Contribution  to  Government 
for  building  public  paths 
useful  to  the  estate . 

Total . 

Sundry  expenditure  as  esti¬ 
mated . 

Emergencies  for  which  esti¬ 
mate  was  exceeded . . . 

Changing  money  locally  4 . 

Extra  contribution  to  Plant¬ 
ers’  Association . 

Extra  contribution  to  hospital. 
Telephone  connection  with 
Government  lines  for  Barek 

section . . . 

Photographs . 

Extra  cost  for  watchmen . 

Total . 

Plague  precautions . 

Upkeep  of  buildings: 

Manager’s  bungalow . 

Assistant’s  bungalow . 

Factory  buildings . 

Native  houses . 

Total . 

Upkeep  of  tram  line: 

Upkeep  of  22  kilometers 
(13.7  miles)  light  rail¬ 
way  . 

Cleaning  and  weeding . 

Repairs  to  rolling  stock. . . 

Total . 

Fire  insurance . 

Local  directors  and  visiting 
agent...'. . 

Total  general  expenses. . 

General  expenses  charge¬ 
able  to  rubber  (75  per 
cent) . 

Grand  total  expenditure  on 
account  of  rubber . 


Cash 

Cost  per 

expendi- 

pound  of 

ture. 

rubber. 1 * * 4 5 

Florin 

Florins. 

cents. 

7,220 

69,509 

- 

5,672 

731 

1,974 

750 

9, 127 

9,658 

500 

2,000 

283 

310 

400 

148 

427 

13,726 

2,416 

12 

834 

819 

3,803 

5,468 

2,001 

343 

452 

2,796 

1,504 

5,400 

180,962 

2  135,722 

8.248 

494,974 

•30.080 

1  Exclusive  of  capital  charge. 

*  This  is  the  rank  tiger  grass,  called  “lalang”  in  British  Malaya  and  “cogone”  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
It  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  planters  in  all  cultures  in  the  oriental  Tropics. 

*  No  fencing  is  done  except  around  nurseries  and  other  areas  from  which  cattle  are  excluded. 

4  Owing  to  scarcity  of  subsidiary  coin  after  July  the  banks  sent  only  paper  money  to  the  estate,  which 
had  to  be  changed  in  the  local  money  shops,  and  the  charge  was  excessive  although  unavoidable. 

5  The  balance  was  charged  to  coffee  ana  sisal  as  follows:  1,974  piculs  of  coffee  at  13.80  florins  per  picul, 
27,241  florins;  and  1,597  piculs  of  sisal  at  11.27  florins  per  picul,  17,999  florins;  total,  45,240  florins. 

• Cost  per  pound  of  rubber  produced  delivered  for  snipment  at  Soerabaya. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


Ill 


The  cost  shown  in  the  preceding  table  is  exclusive  of  interest  on 
capital.  The  capitalization  is  combined  with  that  of  another  estate, 
the  two  together  having  an  area  of  6,009  bouws  (10,658  acres),  and 
the  issued  stock  amounts  to  £248,000.  This  is  a  very  low  figure,  and 
in  estimating  the  capital  charge  it  would  be  safer  to  consider  an  esti¬ 
mate  given  by  a  competent  authority,  who  places  the  capitalization 
per  bouw,  inclusive  of  costs  of  factory,  buildings,  roads,  and  other 
equipment,  at  600  florins  for  first-class  estates  and  1,000  florins  for 
mediocre  estates. 

As  this  estate  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  first  estates  in  J ava,  the 
minimum  figure  may  be  taken.  Using  this  figure,  the  valuation  of 
the  estate  alone  would  be  2,099,400  florins.  Interest  at  6  per  cent 
(125,964  florins)  would  increase  the  cost  by  7.65  cents,  making  the 
total  cost  of  production  37.73  florin  cents  per  pound. 

The  same  authority  gives  the  estimated  production  per  bouw  from 
the  twelfth,  year  of  age  as  900  pounds  for  first-class  estates  and  600 
pounds  for  mediocre  estates,  giving  a  production  cost  per  pound 
(exclusive  of  interest)  of  30  and  50  florin  cents,  respectively,  for  the 
two  classes  of  estates. 

EXPORTATION  OF  RUBBER. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  Hevea  rubber  by  coun¬ 
tries  of  destination  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies : 


Countries  of  destination  and 
divisions  from  which  shipped. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Netherlands: 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

ions. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,006 

1,268 

1,289 

153 

2  851 

Outer  Possessions . 

423 

733 

1, 164 

22 

3,944 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

%  20 

186 

3,336 

8,069 

14, 840 

5,844 

18, 887 

Outer  Possessions . 

92 

2,928 

7,924 

14, 804 

7,646 

14,649 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,000 

1,755 

2, 029 

3,234 

2,193 

1,659 

7,223 

Outer  Possessions . 

760 

1,736 

5,111 

5,306 

3, 847 

1,  S95 

5, 022 

Germany: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

36 

Outer  Possessions . 

3 

France: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3 

5 

S6 

94 

215 

Italy: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3 

Outer  Possessions . 

10 

61 

Russia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

19 

174 

Scandinavia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

94 

Belgium: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

277 

250 

Outer  Possessions . 

187 

192 

Singapore,  Penang,  and  Malacca: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

40 

101 

451 

2,003 

1,728 

7,551 

5,365 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,909 

2,753 

1, 575 

3,901 

8,092 

16,977 

30,424 

Hongkong: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

21 

Outer  Possessions . 

6 

167 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

118 

31 

63 

729 

183 

Outer  Possessions . 

1 

21 

4 

7 

Australia: 

Java  afnd  Madoera . 

63 

7 

724 

244 

Outer  Possessions . 

11 

184 

Canada: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

8 

711 

77 

Outer  Possessions . 

10 

4 

60 

British  India: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

150 

112  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Countries  of  destination  and 
divisions  from  which  shipped. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

All  other  countries: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Metric 

tons. 

2 

1 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

to'ns. 

13 

Metric 

tons. 

12 

1 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

2 

2 

Outer  Possessions . 

6 

Total . 

Total  exports  from  Java  and 

Madoera . 

Total  exports  from  Outer  Pos¬ 
sessions . 

5,625 

9, 118 

18, 101 

30, 938 

45,618 

41,050 

89,622 

2,345 

3, 280 

3,607 

5,509 

7,313 

10,788 

13,763 

17, 175 

18, 843 

26,775 

17,311 

26,739 

35, 162 

54,460 

As  previously  noted,  considerable  attention  was  given  in  the  early 
years  of  rubber  planting  in  the  colony  to  the  cultivation  of  Ficus 
elastica ,  Ceara,  Castilloa,  and  other  varieties.  The  areas  in  these  rub¬ 
bers  have  either  been  replanted  or  the  owners  have  ceased  to  tap. 
Their  disappearance  in  the  returns  is  shown  in  the  following  table, 
1916  being  the  last  year  in  which  the  export  returns  on  these  varieties 
have  appeared: 


Varieties. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Ficus  elastica . 

Metric  tons. 
896 
11 
44 
511 

Metric  tons. 
800 
77 
45 
199 

Metric  tons. 
1,471 
36 
54 
274 

Metric  tons. 
1,824 
69 
41 
759 

Ceara . 

Castilloa . . 

All  other . . . 

RUBBER  EXPORTS  FROM  THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 


Exports  of  plantation  rubber  from  the  Straits  Settlements  are 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

United  Kingdom . 

Ceylon . 

Tons. 

2,549 

7,285 

67 

23 

15 

44 

3 

111 

477 

Tons. 

4,584 

13,595 

224 

59 

33 

294 

16 

598 

571 

418 

44 

Tons. 
21, 420 
13,034 

Tons. 
37, 549 
12,446 
11 
150 

Tons. 

70,300 

15,166 

Tons. 

80,717 

9,631 

Tons. 

139,767 

24,551 

46 

168 

33 

Tons. 

113,747 

24,541 

Australia . 

Netherlands . 

169 

211 

1,042 

430 

361 

822 

1,400 

2,916 

5,976 

4,649 

211 

Germany . 

Italy... T . 

Other  European . 

Japan . 

Canada . 

102 

1,928 

1,250 

961 

44 

136 

5,388 

2,196 

572 

22 

995 

3,264 

3,225 

4,984 

47 

3,364 

2,027 

7,696 

6,815 

92 

392 

3,511 

8,122 

2,968 

100 

All  other . 

Total . 

3 

10,577 

20,436 

38, 908 

58,470 

98, 192 

111,384 

179,658 

155,053 

The  grand  divisions  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  are  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments,  the  Federated  Malay  States,  and  the  Non-Federated  Malay 
States.  The  Straits  Settlements  have  three  ports — Singapore, 
Penang,  and  Malacca.  The  Federated  Malay  States  have  a  number 
of  ports,  but  Port  Swettenham  is  the  only  one  where  ocean  steamers 
call  frequently.  The  Non-Federated  Malay  States  have  no  ports 
where  ocean  steamers  call,  all  their  produce  being  shipped  through 
Singapore  and  Penang.  Most  of  the  exports  of  the  Federated  Malay 
States  go  through  the  ports  of  the  Straits  Settlements. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


113 


The  statistics  of  the  Federated  Malay  States  and  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments  are  acknowledged  by  the  authorities  to  be  very  inadequate, 
and  they  are  so  involved  that  it  requires  careful  study  to  understand 
them. 

Transshipments  from  the  Federated  Malay  States  through  the 
Straits  Settlements  ports  are  not  included  in  the  main  body  of  the 
Straits  Settlements  returns,  but  are  given  in  a  supplement.  They 
are,  however,  included  in  the  official  returns  of  exports  of  the  Fed¬ 
erated  Malay  States,  but  without  any  indication  as  to  whether  they 
were  exported  direct  from  the  ports  of  the  Federated  Malay  States  or 
transshipped  through  Straits  Settlements  ports.  In  order  to  arrive 
at  the  net  exports  from  the  Federated  Malay  States  to  consuming 
countries  it  is  necessary  to  deduct  from  the  total  given  in  the  returns 
of  the  Federated  Malay  States  the  exports  to  the  Straits  Settlements 
from  those  States,  as  well  as  the  rubber  sent  to  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments  for  transshipment. 

Imports  into  the  Straits  Settlements  from  the  Federated  Malay 
States  lose  their  identity  and  go  out  as  Straits  Settlements  rubber, 
and  are  so  considered  in  the  following  statement. 

Transshipments  through  Singapore  and  Penang  of  rubber  from 
Malacca  and  the  Non-Federated  Malay  States  are  not  included  in  the 
main  body  of  the  Straits  Settlements  returns,  but  are  given  in  the 
supplement  mentioned  above. 

The  following  method  of  arriving  at  the  exports  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula  is  being  used  by  the  principal  American  rubber  exporter 
in  Singapore  after  many  years  of  study  of  this  most  perplexing 
problem.  The  exports  for  1919,  the  last  year  for  which  full  returns 
are  available,  are  given  as  an  example,  the  figures  being  taken  from 


official  statistics: 

Long  tons. 

Total  exports  from  the  Federated  Malay  States _  106,  453 

Less  imports  from  the  Federated  Malay  States  into — 

Singapore  (855,520  piculs) _  49,733 

Penang  (140,751  piculs) _  8,378 

Malacca  (79,431  piculs) _  4,728 


62,  839 

Add  transshipments  from  Federated  Malay  States  via  Straits 

Settlements  (301,609  piculs) _  17,953 

-  80, 792 


Remainder  equals  direct  exports  from  Port  Swettenham,  Federated 

Malay  States _  25,  661 

Total  exports  from — 

Singapore  (2,642,535  piculs) _  157,294 

Penang  (193,346  piculs) _  11,509 

Malacca  (133,871  piculs) _  7,969 


176,  772 

Less  imports  from  all  countries  outside  Malay  Peninsula _  31,  867 

-  144,  905 

Add  transshipments  at  Singapore  and  Penang  from  all  other 
parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula : 

Federated  Malay  States  (301,609  piculs) _  17,953 

Non-Federated  Malay  States  (76,205  piculs) _  4,536 

Malacca  (110,175  piculs) _  6,558 

-  29,047 


Grand  total  net  exports  from  Malay  Peninsula _ 199,  613 


114  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  total  net  exports  of  rubber  from  British  Borneo  possessions 
amounted  in  1919  to  6,053  long  tons,  as  follows :  From  British  North 
Borneo,  3,939  long  tons;  from  Sarawak  via  Singapore,  2,000  long 
tons;  and  from  Brunei  and  Sarawak  via  Labuan,  114  long  tons. 
Since  the  total  net  exports  from  the  Malay  Peninsula  amounted  in 
1919  to  199,613  long  tons  and  those  from  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  totaled  88,180  long  tons  (an  import  duty  of  6  per  cent  effec¬ 
tively  prevents  the  importation  of  rubber  into  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies),  the  total  net  exports  of  rubber  from  this  district  in  1919 
amounted  to  293,846  long  tons. 

To  arrive  at  the  total  quantity  of  rubber  shipped  to  consuming 
countries  from  all  producing  countries  in  the  Orient  there  should 
be  added  the  net  exports  from  French  Indo-China,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Siam,  British  India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon. 

GRADES  OF  RUBBER. 

The  following  tabulation  shows  the  grades  of  rubber  on  the  New 
York  market,  compared  with  those  of  Singapore  and  Batavia,  and 
the  grades  manufactured  on  one  East  Java  plantation  designed  to 
get  the  best  prices  on  the  London  market : 


New  York  grades. 


Singapore  grades. 


Batavia  grades. 


East  Java  planter’s 
grades. 


CRfiPE. 
No  equivalent.., 


CRfiPE. 
No  equivalent.. 


CRfiPE. 


Fine  pale  crfipe  (see  note 
1)* 


CRfiPE. 

Prime  pale  crfipe. 


Standard  quality  first 
latex  cr£pe. 


Off-standard  latex  cr^pe. . 
Off-color  latex . 


Prime,  clean,  light-brown 
crSpe. 


Medium-color  brown  crfipe 
(thick  and/or  thin). 
Good,  dark-brown  cr§pe 
(thick  and/or  thin). 


No.  1  amber . 

No.  2  amber . . . 

No.  3  amber  (medium 
color). 

No.  4  amber  (darkish 
color). 

Specky  brown  crepe . 

Massed  or  rolled  crfepe 


No  equivalent 


Singapore  standard, 
quality  pale. 


Off-color  latex 
Palish  crSpe. . . 


Fine  brown 


Brovm 
Dark. . 


Type  A  blanket  crfipe. . . 
Type  B  blanket  crepe. . . 
Type  C  blanket  cr6pe. . . 


Type  D  blanket  cr6pe. . . 

Bark  or  barky . 

Earth  crfepe  or  rolled 
bark  crSpe. 

No  equivalent . 


No  equivalent  (see  note 

2). 


joff-color  crfipe 


Lump 


■Clean  scraps 


|no  equivalent . 

(Barky  or  specky  scrap 
or  bark  cr6pe. 

Earth . . 

Estate  output  (see  note 

5). 


No  equivalent. 

(“P.  red”  prime  crfipe  of 
grayish  color  made 
from  latex  that  has 
been  diluted  with  rain 
water. 

“  L.  B.”  cr&pe  made  from 
samples  taken  from 
tappers  to  determine 
quality  of  rubber 
brought  in. 

“L.  B.  red”  made  from 
latex  coagulated  in  the 
cups. 

(“D”  dark  crepe  made 
from  sorted  scraps. 

“D.  G.”  dark-gray  cr6pe 
made  from  lumps  and 
skimmings. 

“D.  D.  G.  red”  second 
quality,  ditto. 

/Not  plantation  grades 

\  (see  note  3). 


Scrap,  unsorted  scraps 
and  scrapings  from  the 
earth,  trees,  and 
sprouts  (see  note  4). 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


115 


New  York  grades. 

Singapore  grades. 

Batavia  grades. 

East  Java  planter’s 
grades. 

SHEET. 

SHEET. 

SHEET. 

SHEET. 

Standard  quality  smoked 
sheets. 

Singapore  standard, 
quality  ribbed  smoked 
sheets'. 

Prime  ribbed  or  dia¬ 
mond  smoked  sheets 
(see  note  6). 

No.  1  smoked  sheet. 

No  equivalent . 

Off-quality  ribbed 
smoked  sheets. 

Off- quality  ribbed 
smoked  sheets. 

fNo.  2  smoked  sheet. 

(No.  3  smoked  sheet. 

Standard  quality  smooth 
smoked  sheets. 

Plain  smoked  sheets .... 

No  equivalent . 

No  equivalent. 

Standard  quality  un¬ 
smoked  sheets. 

(See  note  7) . 

Not  a  plantation  grade. 

Note  1. — This  grade  is  higher  than  the  present  best  New  York  and  Singapore 
standards  and  now  sells  at  the  same  price,  as  New  York’s  “  standard  first  qual¬ 
ity  latex  crepe  ”  and  “  Singapore  standard,  quality  pale.”  In  the  attempt  of  the 
Batavia  association  to  standardize  its  grades  with  those  of  Singapore,  there  was 
opposition  from  the  owners  of  plantations  making  extra  fine  crepe  to  the  lower¬ 
ing  of  the  standard  of  first-grade  crepe  to  the  equivalent  of  New  York  and 
Singapore.  It  has  been  decided  to  allow  this  supergrade  to  remain,  but  it  is 
believed  that  it  will  shortly  be  eliminated  by  marketing  conditions  existing  in 
Batavia. 

Note  2. — A  new  grade  is  shortly  to  be  established  in  Batavia  equivalent  to 
New  York’s  “  standard  quality  first  latex  cr£pe  ”  and  Singapore’s  “  Singapore 
standard,  quality  pale.”  This  will  be  known  as  “  Batavia  standard,  first  latex 
crepe.” 

Note  3. — There  is  no  native  production  in  Java  equivalent  to  that  of  British 
Malaya  sufficient  to  place  upon  the  market  unsmoked  sheets  from  which  are 
made  the  grades  known  as  “  ambers  ”  in  New  York  and  “  blanket  crepe.  ”  in 
Singapore. 

Note  4. — The  following  statement  was  made  by  the  manager  of  an  estate  on 
being  questioned  about  this  grade:  “We  have  no  grade  called  ‘earth.’  Our 
most  inferior  grade,  is  called  ‘scrap,’  made  from  (1)  unsorted  scraps  (bark 
rubber  from  the  shavings),  (2)  scrapings  from  the  trees  and  sprouts,  and  (3) 
drippings  on  the  ground  (earth  rubber).  We  are  taking  good  care  that  the 
scrapings  and  earth  rubber  are  collected  in  time  to  prevent  their  getting  tacky, 
frail,  and  weak.  All  these  inferior  grades  are  mixed  up  together  and  thor¬ 
oughly  cleaned,  so  that  our  ‘  scrap  ’  can  be  turned  out  in  a  fairly  better  quality 
than  the  grade  called  ‘  bark  crepe.’  ” 

Note  5. — Batavia  has  established  a  grade  called  “  estate  output,”  for  which 
there  is  no  New  York  or  Singapore  equivalent.  This  grade  consists  of  about 
75  per  cent  “  fine  pale  cr§pe  ”  or  “  prime  smoked  sheet  ”  and  25  per  cent  of 
the  lower  grades  from  “  off-color  cr£pe  ”  and  “  off-quality  ribbed  smoked  sheet  ” 
to  “earth.” 

Note  6. — In  Singapore  the  first  grade  of  smoked  sheet  is  “  Singapore  standard, 
quality  ribbed  smoked  sheet,”  which  includes  all  first-quality  smoked  sheet  with 
markings,  either  ribbed  or  marked  with  a  diamond  or  other  figure.  The  Ba¬ 
tavia  market  makes  a  difference  in  that  the  markings  are  designated  “  ribbed  ” 
or  “  diamond,”  as  the  case  may  be. 

Note  7. — There  is  no  standard  quality  of  unsmoked  sheet,  on  the  Singapore 
market.  The  New  York  grade  “  standard  quality  unsmoked  sheet  ”  corre¬ 
sponds  to  Singapore’s  “  clean  dry  pale  ”  to  “  light  brown  ”  unsmoked  sheet. 
This  is  generally  bought  on  sample,  and  qualities  have  a  variation  in  price  up 
to  20  cents  per  pound  at  times. 

These  grades  come  from  the  small  native  holdings  and  are  generally  routed 
from  the  producers  through  the  local  Chinese  shopkeepers  and  their  Chinese 
connections  in  the  larger  towns.  The  closest  knowledge  of  these,  grades  is 
requisite  for  safe  dealings,  as  there  are  many  ways  in  which  dishonest  sellers 
may  deceive  the  uninitiated.  The  principal  subgrades  are  designated  by  the 
district  or  town  from  which  they  reach  Singapore  and  are  as  follows:  Kuala 
Lumpur,  Klang,  Kuala  Kangsar,  Ipoh,  Muar,  Batu  Pahat,  Penang,  Malacca, 
Kelantan,  Indragiri,  and  Djambi. 

19878°— 23 - 9 


l 


116  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Kuala  Lumpur,  Klang,  and  Kuala  Kangsar  send  strong  qualities,  which 
usually  go  to  make  up  the  types  A  and  B  blanket  crgpe.  The  shrinkage  ranges 
from  5*  to  8  per  cent. 

Ipoh  sheets  compare  favorably  with  the  above,  as  far  as  strength  is  con¬ 
cerned,  but  the  shrinkage  will  run  toward  the  higher  extreme  mentioned  above. 

Muar  sheet  has  about  the  same  color  as  that  of  Ipoh,  but  is  found  to  darken 
more  rapidly  after  creping  and  drying.  The  cr§pe  produced  from  this  grade  is 
of  good  strength,  but  it  is  inclined  to  be  somewhat  softer  than  crepe  from  the 
above-mentioned  grades.'  The  shrinkage  is  about  the  same  as  that  from  Ipoh. 

Batu  Pahat  sheet  varies  in  color  from  light  to  dark  and,  after  cr£ping,  is 
inclined  to  darken  and  to  become  somewhat  soft,  with  a  strength  usually  less 
than  the  others  mentioned.  It  makes  up  into  type  C  of  the  Singapore  standard 
blanket  crepe. 

Penang  sheet  is  infrequently  found  on  the  Singapore  market.  It  is  of  a 
darkish  color  with  a  shrinkage  about  equivalent  to  the  sheets  from  Kuala 
Lumpur  and  Klang.  The  strength  is  very  fair  and  when  craped  will  produce 
a  good  type  C  blanket  crepe. 

Indragiri  native  rubber  appears  in  Singapore  as  dry  sheets  and  wet  sheets. 
The  dry  sheets  are  of  very  good  strength  and  on  creping  give  a  firm  B  and  G 
blanket  crepe.  The  wet  sheets  have  a  shrinkage  of  from  7  to  10  per  cent  on 
craping.  The  crepe  produced  is  of  good  strength  of  type  O  but  inclined  to  be 
less  firm  than  that  made  from  the  dry  sheets. 

Malacca  sheet  is  also  in  two  qualities,  dry  and  wet,  although  the  wet  sheets 
do  not  appear  in  quantity  in  the  Singapore  market.  The  dry  sheets  run  from 
a  good  pale  color  to  brown  and  will  crSpe  up  to  form  types  A  and  B  blanket 
crepe,  of  about  the  same  color  as  the  original  sheet.  This  type  of  sheet  is  the 
best  to  be  obtained  and  tests  stronger  than  any  other  on  the  market.  Malacca 
wet  sheet  or  “  mixed  Malacca  sheet  ”  is  dark  in  color  and  makes  a  good,  firm 
type  C  blanket  crepe,  with  a  shrinkage  of  from  3  to  5  per  cent. 

DjamM  sheet  is  usually  rather  soft  and  dark  with  a  high  moisture  content 
showing  a  shrinkage  of  from  8  to  11  per  cent  on  creping.  In  quality  it  averages 
a  soft  dark  blanket  crepe  of  types  C  and  D,  with  the.  bulk  in  D  grade. 

Kelantan  sheet  does  not  appear  frequently  on  the  Singapore  market,  but  the 
quality,  when  it  does  come  in,  follows  closely  that  given  for  Penang  sheet. 

SINGAPORE  AUCTION  SALES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantities  of  rubber  of  all  grades 
sold  at  the  auctions  conducted  annually  by  the  Singapore  Chamber 
of  Commerce  Rubber  Association  in  Singapore.  It  was  from  these 
sales  that  the  prices  shown  in  the  succeeding  section  were  taken. 


Year. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

1912 . 

Pounds. 
54, 114 

Pounds. 
87,816 
152, 486 

Pounds. 
91, 148 

Pounds. 

98,676 

Pounds. 

60,048 

Pounds. 
69, 112 

Pounds. 
108,976 
290,747 
447, 164 

1913 . 

148,971 

244! 475 
571,022 
1,188,908 

206' 683 

253, 134 

210,382 
497, 820 

1914 . 

557,657 

436! 665 

414, 197 

374,051 
890, 544 

1915 . 

675, 195 
1,845,111 

570,619 

2,082,636 

668'  123 

1,609,779 

1,233,384 

2,800,727 

4,378,942 

1916 . 

3,452,657 

2, 161'  891 

2,716,665 

5,196,640 

4,920,316 

4,524,296 

2'  669'  289 

1917 . 

4,595,721 

4' 396' 013 

4,  '695, 542 
6, 251,947 

4,700,677 

6,605,157 

6,695,389 

3,558,592 

3,876,916 

1918 . 

7, 244,051 
7,464,543 
5,836,465 

4, 639! 449 

7,312,110 

7,468,228 

4,481,500 

3,644,461 

1919 . 

5' 991' 426 

5,793,182 
6, 059, 303 

4,571,215 

5,225,288 

4,135,647 

1920 . 

5'  853'  405 

5,161,831 

3,641,162 

1921 . 

4,759,935 

4,374,894 

5,872,464 

3' 091' 396 

3,402,095 

Year. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

Total. 

1912 . 

Pounds. 
92,385 
242,661 
76,404 
1,283,886 
3,546,711 
5, 458,022 

Pounds. 
92,362 
303,944 
434, 149 

Pounds. 
153, 661 

Pounds. 
115, 068 

Pounds. 

145,896 

456,908 

849,848 

2,700,506 

Pounds. 

1,169,262 

3,379,168 

1913 . 

406' 632 

462'  145 

1914 . 

621,677 

2,008,804 

4,438,251 

6,216,910 

692,525 

1,645,039 

5,178,003 

3,090,962 

5,479,038 

6,905,387 

2,749,341 

5,973,179 

16,401,788 

37,419,573 

54.469.168 
70,930,382 
78,626,086 
59,460,715 

55.239. 169 

1915 . 

1,927,001 
3,609,997 
6,065,797 
5,793,138 
6, 462, 102 

1916 . 

2,917,635 

1917 . 

2! 415^ 350 
4,979,541 
7,309,958 
5,057,723 

1918 . 

4, 963',  755 
6,109,815 
4,771,207 
4,720,274 

8'  864'  964 

1919 . 

9, 330, 545 
4,766,495 
4,842,090 

1920 . 

5, 856, 995 
4,660,081 

1921 . 

6'  185' 010 

5,551,822 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


117 


PRICES  OF  LATEX  CREPE. 

The  following  table  shows  the  monthly  high  and  low  prices  per 
pound  of  latex  crepe  at  the  Singapore  auctions  from  1912  to  1921. 
These  prices  are  compiled  from  the  returns  of  the  Singapore  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Commerce  Rubber  Association’s  weekly  returns  and  are  given 
in  Singapore  cents  (1  Singapore  cent  =  0.57  U.  S.  cent). 


Months. 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

January . 

1210. 00 

189. 75 

183. 75 

165.  00 

*101.  25 

86.25 

88.50 

81.75 

3157.  50 

135.75 

February . 

207.00 

199.  50 

174.  75 

161.25 

*104.  25 

94.  50 

90.00 

84.00 

147.  75 

111.75 

March . 

225. 00 

201.  75 

162.  75 

141.  75 

<103.  50 

4  96.  75 

96.  75 

90.00 

141.  75 

135.75 

April . 

213. 75 

192. 00 

146.  25 

119.  25 

109.  50 

99.00 

96.  75 

92.  25 

137.  25 

129.  75 

May . 

193.  50 

180.00 

138. 75 

117.  75 

102.  75 

94.  50 

100.  50 

90.00 

120.  75 

101.  25 

June . 

190.  50 

180.00 

124. 50 

112.  50 

93.  75 

89.  25 

99.00 

90.  75 

105.  00 

90.75 

July . 

192.00 

177. 00 

116.  25 

96.  75 

87.  75 

81.75 

106.  50 

98.25 

96.  75 

87.75 

August . 

195.00 

177.00 

108.00 

97.50 

56.  25 

55.  50 

101.  25 

95.25 

88.50 

84.75 

September . 

192.00 

173.  25 

99.  00 

75.00 

75. 00 

68.25 

99.  75 

95.  25 

95.  25 

86.25 

October . 

183.  75 

156.  75 

88.50 

76.50 

86.  25 

75.  75 

103.  50 

97.50 

98.  25 

93.00 

November . 

174.00 

148.  50 

101.  25 

81.00 

97.  50 

79.50 

126.  75 

101.  25 

117.  00 

99.75 

December . 

181.  50 

160.  50 

90.00 

84.00 

88.  50 

81.  75 

156.  75 

120. 00 

123.  75 

102.00 

Months. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

January . 

114.00 

102.00 

80.25 

68.25 

77.50 

72.00 

5112.  00 

107.  00 

37.00 

34.00 

February . 

127. 50 

112.  50 

70. 50 

63.75 

78.50 

73.50 

114.  00 

106.  00 

39.00 

35.  50 

March . 

130.  50 

112.  50 

72.75 

65.  25 

79.00 

73.  50 

107.  00 

88.  00 

39.00 

36.50 

April . 

123. 75 

116.  25 

84.00 

55. 50 

79.50 

75. 00 

90.  50 

83.  50 

34.  .50 

34.50 

May . 

117.  75 

108.00 

78.  75 

66.00 

77.  50 

75.00 

84.50 

71.50 

33.00 

32.50 

June . 

110.25 

95.25 

59.25 

49.50 

76.50 

64.00 

82.00 

72.00 

28.  00 

25.00 

July . 

99.  75 

95.25 

54.  50 

48.00 

73.00 

64.00 

76.50 

70.  00 

32.00 

30.00 

August . 

97.50 

90.00 

47.50 

37.00 

82.00 

73."  00 

83.00 

67.00 

29.50 

27.50 

September . 

98.  25 

90.00 

55.00 

43.00 

112. 00 

83.50 

68.50 

53.50 

30.50 

27.50 

October . 

93.  75 

88.50 

64.50 

42.00 

96,00 

85.50 

60.00 

55.00 

31.50 

29.50 

N  ovember . 

89.25 

74.25 

76.50 

66.00 

99.00 

95.00 

45.  50 

38.  00 

37.  50 

32.00 

December . 

76.50 

71.25 

77.00 

73.00 

110.  00 

96.50 

39.50 

30.50 

39. 50 

36.00 

1  Cr6pe  No.  1. 

1  January  and  February  quotations  are  for  fine  pale  thin,  good  pale  thin,  and  good  pale  blanket  cr§pe 
combined;  other  1914  quotations  are  for  fine  pale  thin  crfipe  only. 

3  Cr@pe,  fine  pale. 

4  Last  three  sales  in  month. 

6  Singapore  standard  first  latex  crepe. 

The  following  prices  per  pound  of  latex  crepe  on  the  London 
market,  given  in  shillings  and  pence,  are  from  the  World’s  Rubber 
Position : 


Months. 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

5. 

d. 

8. 

d. 

5. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

January . 

5 

4 

5 

3 

8 

0 

7 

7 

5 

44 

4 

9 

5 

5 

4 

104 

4 

64 

4 

3 

February . 

5 

5* 

5 

3 

9 

84 

8 

0 

7 

1 

5 

3 

5 

34 

5 

1 

4 

34 

4 

0 

March . 

5 

5 

5 

4 

11 

4 

9 

9 

7 

3 

6 

44 

5 

9 

5 

3 

4 

0 

3 

71 

April . 

5 

6 

5 

4 

12 

9 

11 

4 

6 

54 

5 

4 

5 

7 

4 

11 

3 

7J 

3 

11 

May . 

5 

8 

5 

54 

11 

114 

9 

6 

5 

64 

4 

8 

4 

11 

4 

84 

3 

44 

3 

2 

June . 

6 

5J 

6 

0 

9 

6 

8 

9 

5 

4 

4 

6 

5 

1 

4 

84 

3 

2 

2 

11 

July . 

8 

6 

6 

74 

9 

6 

8 

6 

5 

10 

4 

9 

5 

04 

4 

10 

2 

104 

2 

81 

August . 

8 

4 

7 

4 

8 

6 

7 

3 

5 

84 

5 

3 

5 

04 

4 

94 

2 

10 

2 

71 

September . 

9 

3 

7 

9 

7 

3 

6 

34 

5 

74 

5 

1 

4 

94 

4 

6 

2 

71 

2 

0 

October . 

9 

14 

9 

0 

6 

94 

5 

8 

5 

1 

4 

7 

4 

64 

4 

5 

2 

2 

2 

04 

November . 

9 

1 

8 

5 

6 

3 

5 

7 

4 

84 

4 

7 

4 

5 

4 

1 

2 

6 

2 

11 

December . 

7 

7 

7 

1 

6 

1 

5  10 

4 

84 

4 

11 

4 

7 

4 

4 

2 

34 

2 

21 

For  year . 

9 

3 

5 

3 

12 

9 

5 

7 

7 

3 

4 

6 

5 

9 

4 

1 

4 

64 

2 

0 

Average . 

7 

1 

8 

9 

0 

54 

4 

9 

3 

01 

118  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA 


Months. 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

5. 

d. 

5. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

8. 

d. 

January . 

2 

5* 

2 

24 

2 

24 

1 

11? 

4 

34 

2 

114 

3 

04 

2 

104 

February . 

2 

7 

2 

4 

2 

5 

2 

1? 

3 

94 

2 

114 

3 

44 

2 

li 

March . 

2 

8 

2 

3* 

2 

6? 

2 

3| 

3 

84 

3 

5 

3 

34 

3 

04 

April . 

3 

0 

2 

6* 

2 

4} 

2 

3 

3 

4? 

3 

1 

3 

2 

2 

li 

May . 

2 

8 

2 

3* 

2 

54 

2 

3 

3 

0? 

2 

64 

3 

1 

2 

114 

June . 

2 

4J 

2 

2* 

2 

6 

2 

44 

2 

9 

2 

4 

3 

0 

2 

44 

July . 

2 

3 

2 

14 

2 

74 

2 

5? 

2 

4? 

2 

14 

2 

7? 

2 

54 

August . 

2 

5J 

2 

0 

2 

54 

2 

44 

2 

44 

2 

2 

2 

84 

2 

54 

September . 

2 

2* 

2 

0 

2 

5 

2 

3? 

2 

6 

2 

24 

2 

104 

2 

8? 

October . 

2 

34 

2 

2 

64 

2 

44 

2 

6 

2 

4 

2 

94 

2 

74 

November . 

2 

5* 

2 

l 

3 

74 

2 

54 

2 

104 

2 

64 

2 

8? 

2 

54 

December . 

2 

2 

1 

H4 

4 

14 

3 

1 

3 

54 

2 

10 

2 

64 

2 

24 

For  year . 

3 

0 

1 

H4 

4 

14 

1 

114 

4 

34 

2 

14 

3 

44 

2 

2| 

Average . 

2 

CO 

wit- 

2 

6 

2 

104 

2 

9| 

Months. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

8. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

S. 

d. 

8. 

d. 

5. 

d. 

January . 

2 

64 

2 

24 

2 

2? 

2 

0 

2 

104 

2 

74 

1 

34 

0 

114 

February . 

2 

5 

2 

3 

o 

<u 

1? 

2 

04 

2 

94 

2 

7 

1 

24 

1 

04 

March . 

2 

6? 

2 

44 

2 

14 

2 

0 

2 

74 

2 

24 

1 

o? 

0 

114 

April . 

2 

64 

2 

4 

2 

04 

1 

104 

2 

34 

2 

14 

0 

H4 

0 

104 

May . 

2 

44 

2 

2 

1 

114 

1 

104 

2 

24 

1 

104 

0 

104 

0 

8f 

June . 

2 

3 

2 

1 

1 

104 

1 

8 

2 

1 

1 

104 

0 

9 

0 

8 

July . 

2 

3 

2 

14 

1 

n? 

1 

94 

2 

0 

1 

94 

0 

10 

0 

84 

August . 

2 

2 

2 

l 

2 

14 

1 

11 

2 

0 

1 

94 

0 

9-4 

0 

8 

September . .' . 

2 

3 

2 

14 

2 

44 

2 

14 

1 

9 

1 

6 

0 

94 

0 

84 

October . 

2 

54 

2 

24 

2 

4| 

2 

24 

1 

64 

1 

•4 

0 

104 

0 

84 

November . 

2 

6 

2 

44 

2 

9 

2 

44 

1 

3 

1 

04 

0 

11? 

0 

94 

December . 

2 

4? 

2 

24 

2 

11 

2 

54 

1 

i? 

0 

10 

0 

114 

0 

104 

For  year . 

2 

64 

2 

1 

2 

11 

1 

8 

2 

104 

0 

10 

1 

34 

0 

8 

Average . 

2 

34 

2 

14 

l 

11 

0 

104 

The  New  York  prices  per  pound  (in  cents)  of  first  latex  crepe,  as 
published  in  the  India  Rubber  World,  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 


Months. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

• 

January . 

103 

Ill 

55 

61 

59 

64 

70 

103 

75 

80 

February . . 

96 

103 

58 

64 

57 

63 

72 

90 

75 

85 

March . 

88 

96 

58 

65 

59 

60 

83 

88 

82 

90 

April . 

76 

88 

64 

72 

59 

60 

74 

82 

81 

83 

May . 

78 

84 

57 

65 

59 

61 

61 

74 

83 

834 

80 

June . 

70 

77 

54 

57 

60 

63 

56 

62 

654 

654 

66 

July . 

66 

70 

54 

57 

62 

63 

52 

57 

67 

August . 

66 

70 

60 

105 

59 

61 

53 

56 

67 

September . 

52 

64 

52 

56 

57 

58 

54 

60 

664 

634 

57 

674 

654 

61 

October . 

50 

52 

54 

62 

61 

63 

56 

60 

N  ovember . 

52 

60 

58 

65 

63 

78 

60 

69 

December . 

53 

55 

73 

87 

76 

99 

68 

82 

54 

60 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


119 


Months. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

High. 

January . 

53 

58 

52 

58 

51 

55} 

19 

21} 

February . 

52} 

57 

56 

58 

45} 

51} 

19} 

20 

March . 

55* 

60 

51 

56 

46 

48} 

46} 

18 

19} 

April . 

591 

70 

47 

50} 

42} 

18} 

19} 

May . 

63 

6S} 

45} 

48 

38 

43} 

17} 

19} 

17} 

J  une . 

60 

63 

40 

45 

37} 

39 

13} 

July . 

63 

39} 

42} 

30 

35} 

14 

17 

August . 

63 

41} 

45} 

29} 

33} 

HI 

17 

September . 

60} 

63 

45} 

52} 

24} 

29 

14 

16 

October . 

59 

60} 

49} 

55 

21 

26 

15 

17 

November . 

41 

63 

53 

54} 

18} 

21 

16 

19} 

December . 

54 

63 

51 

'  54} 

16f 

19} 

18 

21 

MARKET  REVIEW— IMPORT  DUTY. 

The  growth  of  the  cultivation  of  rubber  followed  closely  the 
development  of  the  automobile  industry.  In  April,  1909,  the  price 
of  plantation  rubber  on  the  London  market  reached  12s.  9d.,  in  re¬ 
sponse  to  a  heavy  consumer  and  speculator  demand,  and  the  profits 
from  the  industry  which  seemed  to  be  promised  by  these  high  prices 
led  to  a  great  amount  of  speculation  in  rubber  shares.  The  drop  in 
price  to  6s.  Id.  in  December,  1910,  brought  about  a  sudden  deflation 
in  estate  values  and  large  losses  were  absorbed  by  the  speculators. 

Since  1910  there  has  been  a  marked  growth  in  the  acreage  planted 
in  rubber,  not  only  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  but  in  Java,  Sumatra, 
Ceylon,  British  India,  and  French  Indo-China.  Until  1920  rubber 
brought  prices  ranging  from  2  shillings  upward,  which  yielded 
handsome  profits  to  the  estate  owners,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  that 
year  the  price  dropped  below  2  shillings  and  continued  to  fall  until 
it  reached  9  pence  in  June,  1921. 

The  increase  of  producing  acreage  under  rubber  was  apparently 
greater  than  the  growth  of  consumption.  The  war  demand  kept  the 
market  up  as  long  as  it  lasted,  and  the  speculator  demand  later 
counteracted  the  natural  tendency  to  seek  an  economic  level,  but 
with  the  tightening  up  of  the  money  markets  the  unsound  position 
of  the  market  became  very  apparent.  From  a  strong  sellers’  posi¬ 
tion  the  market  by  1921  changed  very  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
buyers,  and  since  then  it  has  been  strongly  a  buyers’  market. 

Before  the  war  London  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  Amsterdam  were 
the  markets  for  rubber,  but  the  war  condition  shifted  the  base  to 
Singapore,  where  it  remained  until  1919,  when  planters  were  or¬ 
dered  by  their  European  directors  to  sell  through  pre-war  channels. 
The  slump  in  prices  has  again  shifted  the  market  back  to  Singapore 
in  a  considerable  measure. 

The  rubber  estates  in  Java  and  the  Government  of  Sumatra  East 
Coast  are,  almost  without  exception,  owned  abroad,  either  in  the 
Netherlands,  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  France,  or  Shanghai  or  (in 
the  case  of  Sumatra)  in  the  United  States.  While  some  rubber  is 
sold  direct  to  manufacturer  consumers  and  some  is  sold  to  local 
speculators,  the  bulk  of  the  product  is  shipped  to  European  market 
cities,  principally  to  Amsterdam  and  London. 

In  order  to  discourage  the  development  of  a  speculator  market  in 
the  Netherlands  Indies  an  import  duty  of  6  per  cent  has  been  im- 


120 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


posed.  This  effectively  prevents  the  import  of  rubber  to  cover  short 
forward  sales. 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  RUBBER. 

The  following  publications  are  of  importance  in  the  study  of  the 
world’s  production  of  plantation  rubber : 

The  World’s  Rubber  Position.  Published  monthly  by  W.  H.  Rickinson  &  Son,  3 
Great  Winchester  Street,  London,  Wall,  E.  C. 

Rubber  Companies’  Position.  Published  monthly  by  W.  H.  Rickinson  &  Son,  3 
Great  Winchester  Street,  London,  Wall,  E.  C.  2. 

Rubber  Producing  Companies.  Published  yearly  by  Mincing  Lane  Tea  and 
Rubber  Share  Brokers’  Association,  6  Mincing  Lane,  London,  E.  C.  3. 

The  Financier  Handbook.  Published  in  London. 

The  Ceylon  Greenbook.  Published  by  the  Times  of  Ceylon. 

Facts  and  Figures  of  Dollar  Rubber  Companies.  Issued  monthly  by  Frazer  & 
Co.,  exchange  and  share  brokers,  Singapore. 

India  Rubber  World.  Published  monthly  by  the  India  Rubber  World  Publish¬ 
ing  Co.,  25  West  Twenty-fifth  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

India  Rubber  Review.  Published  monthly  by  the  India  Rubber  Review  Co., 
1034  Second  National  Building,  Akron,  Ohio. 

COFFEE. 

The  following  extracts,  relating  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  are 
from  the  Yearbook  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  edition  of  1916: 

Of  the  products  of  forced  cultivation  under  the  “  cultuur  system  ”  coffee  has 
been  the  longest  under  the  control  of  the  Government.  It  was  not  until  1915 
that  the  Government  began  to  give  up  the  cultivation  in  Java,  although  it  was 
abandoned  in  the  Celebes  as  early  as  1899  and  in  Sumatra  in  1902. 

Since  1870  the  cultivation  of  coffee  by  private  enterprise  has  increased,  es¬ 
pecially  on  the  slopes  of  the  volcanoes  in  east  Java.  When  the  cultivation  was 
in  its  infancy  the  so-called  Java  coffee  (coffee  Arabica)  was  almost  the  only 
kind  planted,  but  after  1875  Liberia  coffee  began  gradually  to  take  its  place. 

At  the  present  time  Liberia  as  well  as  Java  coffee  has  been  outclassed  by 
Robusta,  which  was  imported  from  Africa  in  1901  and  now  occupies  quite  one- 
half  the  area  planted  with  coffee. 

All  coffee  in  Java  is  sold  f.  a.  q.,  meaning  fair  average  quality  of 
the  season’s  crop.  When  there  is  a  serious  difference  of  opinion  be¬ 
tween  buyer  and  seller  the  dispute  is  settled  by  two  arbitrators,  one 
appointed  by  the  buyer  and  the  other  by  the  seller,  and  if  these  two 
can  not  come  to  an  agreement  a  superarbitrator  is  selected.  Prac¬ 
tically  all  sales  in  J ava  are  made  through  brokers. 

GRADES  OF  COFFEE. 

In  the  customs  returns  for  Java  and  Madoera,  Robusta,  Java, 
and  Liberia  coffees  grown  in  Java  are  listed  separately.  In  Java 
the  coffees  are  almost  all  grown  on  estates  under  European  super¬ 
vision,  but  there  is  some  native  production  which  is  sold  for  native 
consumption  and  does  not  appear  in  the  production  figures  submitted 
herewith. 

Robusta. — In  1919  the  following  production  of  Robusta  coffee  is 
given  in  the  annual  report  of  a  leading  firm  of  brokers  of  Soerabaya 
and  Batavia,  and  the  figures  are  considered  to  be  the  most  reliable 
on  this  subject: 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS.  121 

Piculs. 

West  Java _ 14,  041 

Middle  Java _ 33,  836 

East  Java _  457, 125 

Celebes _  3,  210 

Sumatra _  204,  019 

Government  estates _  10,  668 


Total  piculs _  722,899 

Total  pounds _  98,  314,  264 


Fermented  beans  in  Robusta,  called  “  stinkers”  by  the  trade,  have 
given  that  coffee  a  bad  name  in  the  American  market,  and  a  first 
requisite  is  that  this  grade  shall  be  entirely  free  from  fermented 
beans.  One-half  per  cent  of  broken  and  black  beans  are  allowed  in 
the  grade  exported  to  the  United  States.  “  Export  quality  ”  is 
“  double  picked.”  Single-picked  (sorted)  Robusta  and  other  coffees 
are  often  found  in  the  markets,  but  these  are  always  repicked  before 
exporting.  Local  buyers  judge  the  quality  of  coffees  by  the  estate 
marks,  and  some  of  those  brands  are  ready  for  export  as  they  come 
from  the  estate,  while  others  are  not  in  good  order.  These  differences 
are  always  leveled  by  the  middleman  or  the  exporter. 

The  varieties  known  as  Canephora,  Uganda,  Baukobensis,  Sanku- 
rensis,  Kwiluensis,  Quillou,  Bukobensis,  and  Roodbessige  Stenophylla 
are  similar  to  Robusta  and  are  exported  under  that  name,  but  they 
are  known  in  the  local  markets  as  the  “  Robusta  achtigen.”  In  1919 
the  total  production  of  these  varieties  was  under  9,000  piculs. 

Liberia. — Liberia  coffee  is  the  third  in  point  of  acreage  and  in 
production.  The  1919  crop  is  given  as  follows: 


Piculs. 

West  Java _  1,  369 

Middle  Java _  3,433 

East  Java _  337 

Celebes _ 817 

Sumatra _  4,  707 

Government _  2 


Total  piculs _  10,  665 

Total  pounds _  1,  450,  440 

The  varieties  known  as  Excelsa,  Abeocuta,  Dewevrei,  Arnoldiana, 
Aruwimiensis,  Dybowsky,  and  “  Hybride  ”  are  related  to  the  Liberia 
and  are  similar  in  appearance.  These  all  go  into  the  export  grades 
as  Liberia,  but  are  known  to  the  local  trade  as  the  “  Liberia  achti¬ 
gen.”  The  total  production  of  these  varieties  in  1919  was  1,200  piculs. 

Java  (Arabica). — Java  coffees  are  second  in  point  of  acreage  and 
in  production.  In  1919  the  estate  production  of  this  variety  was  as 
follows : 

Piculs. 


West  Java _  15 

Middle  Java _  736 

East  Java _  37,  045 

Government  estates _  19,  352 

Celebes _ _  40,  298 

Bali _  35,  000 

Sumatra _  25,  735 


Total  piculs- 
Total  pounds 


158, 181 
21,  512,  616 


122  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


“  Java  ”  coffee  is  the  best  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  product. 
At  low  altitudes  it  is  subject  to  the  leaf  disease  that  made  it  neces¬ 
sary  to  introduce  Liberia  and  Robusta,  and  to-day  it  is  seldom  seen 
below  an  altitude  of  3,500  feet.  As  shown  in  the  above  figures,  the 
larger  part  of  “Java”  (Arabica)  coffee  is  grown  outside  of  Java. 
The  two  eastern  residencies,  Besoeki  and  Pasoroean,  produced  87 
per  cent  of  the  Java  supply. 

Fancy  coffees . — The  fancy  coffees  are  most  largely  grown  by  the 
natives  in  Sumatra,  Bali,  and  Celebes.  Arabica  coffees,  which  go 
into  the  American  and  European  markets  under  the  name  of  Ankola, 
Sibolga,  Ajer  Banjies,  and  Mandahling,  come  from  the  highland 
districts  in  the  Residencies  of  Tapanoeli  and  Sumatra  West  Coast. 
These  grades  seldom  get  into  the  hands  of  the  Java  speculators, 
as  they  bring  fancy  prices  from  the  exporters. 

Boengie  coffee  comes  from  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes  and  is 
above  the  grades  just  mentioned  in  quality  and  price.  It  is  excellent 
coffee,  superior  in  quality  to  the  Java  Arabica. 

Timor  coffee,  grown  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Smaller 
Soenda  Group,  is  equal  to  the  Boengie  coffee  and  brings  about  the 
same  price  on  the  Soerabaya  market. 

Kroe  coffee  is  grown  in  the  highlands  of  the  Residencies  of  Palem- 
bang  and  Benkoelen,  in  southern  Sumatra.  In  quality  and  price  it 
is  under  the  other  Sumatra  coffees,  being  about  equal  to  the  coffees 
of  Timor,  the  Moluccas,  and  Celebes. 

Bali  coffee  is  grown  on  the  island  of  Bali,  east  of  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  Java.  It  is  a  very  good  coffee,  almost  equal  to  the 
three  preceding  grades. 

Most  of  these  fancy  coffees  are  of  native  production  and  their 
superiority  is  due  to  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  Sorting  is  often 
poorly  done  at  the  point  of  production,  and  it  is  re-sorted  before  ex¬ 
portation. 

During  the  past  two  years  there  has  been  considerable  mixing  of 
grades  in  western  Sumatra  at  the  instigation  of  Batavia  dealers. 
This  has  tended  to  lower  the  best  grades  in  the  American  market, 
and  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  various  high  grades  is  be¬ 
coming  somewhat  obscure. 

ACREAGE  AND  VARIETIES  OF  COFFEE  GROWN. 

According  to  statistics  issued  in  September,  1919,  by  the  Dutch 
East  Indian  Government,  there  were  144,663  hectares  (357,462  acres) 
planted  to  coffee  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  following  figures 
are  taken  from  that  statement,  showing,  in  hectares,  the  coffee  planted 
and  in  production: 


Robusta. 

Java 

(Ara¬ 

bica). 

Liberia. 

All 

others. 

Total. 

In  pro¬ 
duction. 

Coffee  alone . 

With  one  other  culture . 

With  two  other  cultures . 

With  three  or  more . 

Unmixed  with  others . 

Mixed  with  various  cultures . 

Hectares. 
9, 654 
5, 346 
3, 003 
1,948 
19,  744 
81,215 

Hectares. 
3, 221 
929 
653 
111 
2, 178 
913 

Hectares. 
625 
881 
92 
149 
1, 202 
3,618 

Hectares. 

518 

835 

382 

788 

4,024 

2,634 

Hectares. 
14, 018 
7, 991 
4,130 
2,996 
27, 148 
88,380 

Hectares. 
11,527 
6, 189 
3,316 
2,687 
20,005 
52,749 

Total  in  hectares . 

Total  in  acres . 

120,910 
298, 769 

8, 005 
19, 780 

6,  567  9, 181 

16,228  1  22,687 

144,  663 
357, 462 

96,  473 
238, 387 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


123 


The  above  figures  show  that  84  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  was  in 
Robusta,  5|-  per  cent  in  Java  (Arabica),  4J  per  cent  in  Liberia,  and 
the  balance  in  the  various  minor  varieties  of  coffee,  most  of  which 
were  in  the  experimental  stage.  Official  area  figures  of  the  various 
crops  are  not  exact  and  should  be  used  only  for  broad  deductions. 

As  will  be  noted,  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  acreage  under  Robusta 
coffee  is  mixed  with  other  cultures.  It  is  growTn  principally  as  a 
catch  crop  with  rubber,  and  in  such  cases  is  destined  to  be  cut  out 
as  the  rubber  matures.  This  is  also  true  of  a  considerable  proportion 
of  Liberia  and  the  new,  partly  experimental  varieties.  Java  coffee  is 
usually  a  major  crop,  and  when  interplanted  with  rubber  the  rubber 
is  for  shade  and  for  a  secondary  crop. 

Robusta  plants  were  introduced  in  Java  in  the  year  1901,  after 
Java  and  Liberia  coffees  had  become  so  badly  infected  with  the 
prevailing  leaf  disease  that  the  cultivation  of  coffee  was  in  great 
danger  of  being  abandoned.  At  about  the  same  time  a  new  shade 
tree  (lamtoro)  was  found  to  take  the  place  of  the  u  dadap  ”  tree, 
which  had  been  used  formerly  and  had  suffered  from  disease.  Since 
then  the  planters  have  given  more  and  more  attention  to  Robusta. 
Before  the  war  most  of  this  coffee  went  to  Europe,  very  little  of  it 
finding  a  market  in  the  United  States,  and  even  during  the  war 
American  buyers  bought  reluctantly. 

Java  coffee  (Arabica)  is  to-day  the  second  in  point  of  acreage  as 
it  is  in  export.  This  variety  was  driven  out  of  the  lowlands  by 
disease,  but  in  the  higher  levels,  around  1,100  meters  and  higher,  it 
resists  the  diseases  and  is  found  to  be  a  profitable  crop. 

Liberia  coffee  has  suffered  heavily  from  the  leaf  disease  that  drove 
Java  coffee  from  the  lowlands  and  is  decreasing  in  favor  with  the 
planters.  In  the  early  years  of  its  introduction  (in  the  eighties)  it  was 
hoped  that  Liberia  would  resist  the  leaf  disease,  but  it  was  soon 
shown  that  in  most  districts  it  was  as  vulnerable  as  the  Java  variety. 

Excelsa  coffee,  which  was  discovered  in  Africa  in  1905,  is  related 
to  Liberia,  but  resists  the  leaf  diseases  well  and  stands  long  droughts 
and  heavy  rains.  It  is  growing  in  favor  with  the  planters,  as  it  pro¬ 
duces  abundantly  and  is  of  a  quality  that  is  acceptable  in  the  markets. 
Other  varieties  grown  are  Canephora,  Uganda,  and  Quillou,  but  as 
yet  these  are  in  the  early  stages  of  adaptation  to  Java’s  climate  and 
soil  conditions.  There  are  many  other  varieties  being  grown  in  the 
Government’s  experiment  gardens,  and  the  Division  of  Plant  Breed¬ 
ing  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian 
Government  is  confident  that  ample  preparation  has  been  made  to 
meet  any  emergencies  that  an  unexpected  growth  of  coffee  diseases 
may  develop.  A  series  of  articles  by  Dr.  P.  J.  S.  Cramer,  chief  of  tliis 
division,  has  been  written  for  an  American  coffee  journal,  describing 
his  work  and  giving  a  detailed  description  of  the  many  varieties  of 
coffee  used  in  plant  breeding,  as  well  as  further  information  about 
the  above-mentioned  types.  A.  copy  of  these  articles  is  on  file  with  the 
Bureau  of  Eoreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  in  Washington.  (See 
“  Organization  of  a  rubber,  coffee,  and  sisal  estate  in  east  Java,” 
under  “  Rubber.”) 


124  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  steps  necessary  in  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  coffee  in  Java: 

Clearing  jangle. — When  a  coffee  estate  is  being  developed  from 
the  jungle,  clearing  is  done  as  completely  as  may  be  at  a  reasonable 
price.  In  Java  this  means  that  all  big  stumps  are  left  in  the  field 
and  large  logs  are  left  as  they  fall. 

Preparation  of  soil. — No  plowing  is  done,  but  holes  are  made  for 
planting.  On  side  hills,  where  much  of  the  coffee  is  raised,  ter¬ 
races  are  made  10  by  10  feet  square,  with  a  slope  of  1  in  10  to  15.  , 
This  is  to  prevent  erosion,  which  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  the 
upland  planters.  When  labor  costs  25  cents  per  day  terracing  costs 
from  5  to  6  cents  per  plant.  To-day  in  the  coffee  districts  40  cents  is 

PRICE  OF  ROBUSTA  COFFEE. 

FAIR  AVERAGE  QUALITY 
SOERABAYA  MARKET 
CALENDAR  YEARS  1919, 192Q,  1921. 


I  FLORIN  *  *  402  I  PICUL  =  136  LBS 

EXCHANGE  FLUCTUATIONS  FOLLOW  NEW  YORK,  LONDON  CROSSRATE  CLOSELY. 

Fig.  13. 


the  ruling  wage.  The  edges  of  the  terraces  are  planted  with  lamtoro 
(a  green  manure).  In  the  lowlands  ditching  is  done,  but  as  coffee 
is  essentially  an  uplands  product,  very  little  coffee  is  planted  on  the 
plains.  In  Besoeki  Residency  400  feet  is  the  lowest  altitude,  and  at 
Malang  1,000  feet,  while  “  Java  ”  coffees  are  grown  at  an  elevation  of 
3,500  feet  and  more. 

Planting. — Ten  by  ten  feet  is  the  usual  interval  for  planting,  but 
on  some  estates  an  8  by  8  interval  is  the  rule.  From  two  to  three 
months  after  planting  the  ground  around  the  young  plants  is  patch- 
oeled  (hoed),  after  which  no  further  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  done. 
Planting  usually  takes  place  from  October  to  December. 

Shade, — The  lamtoro  has  proven  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  shade 
tree.  These  are  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the  coffee,  one  lam¬ 
toro  tree  to  each  coffee  plant. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


125 


Maturity. — At  the  end  of  two  and  one-half  years,  in  the  case  of 
Robusta,  the  coffee  trees  begin  to  bear  and  are  in  full  bearing  at  six 
years. 

Pruning. — Trees  are  pruned  or  “  topped  ”  so  that  they  will  not 
grow  higher  than  6  feet.  This  is  to  keep  them  within  reach  of  the 
pickers  and  not  to  benefit  the  growth  of  the  tree.  Young  shoots  are 
cut  so  that  the  strength  will  go  into  the  producing  branches. 

Weeding. — It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  gardens  as  clean  as  possible 
at  a  reasonable  cost.  The  first  year  the  charge  is  the  heaviest,  run¬ 
ning  from  24  to  40  florins  per  bouw  (1  bouw=1.7537  acres),  as  the 
“canopy”  (foliage)  is  not  dense  enough  to  prevent  weeds  from 
growing.  An  annual  weeding  charge  of  from  16  to  18  florins  per 
bouw  is  considered  normal. 

Harvesting . — Picking  usually  begins  in  May  and  is  finished  in 
September.  In  the  district  to  the  south  and  east  of  Ivloet  Volcano, 
where  the  soil  is  sandy,  picking  continues  during  the  12  months,  but 
the  heaviest  yield  is  during  the  months  named. 

Yield. — From  10  to  12  piculs  (1  picul=:136  pounds)  to  the  bouw 
is  considered  a  fair  average  yield  from  the  sixth  year  on  for  Ro- 
busta,  which  is  a  very  uneven  producer.  Some  varieties  of  coffee 
yield  from  15  to  20  piculs  under  favorable  conditions. 

Manuring. — No  artificial  manure  is  used  in  growing  coffee.  The 
lamtoro,  which  is  grown  on  the  edges  of  the  terraces  and  for  shade, 
is  an  excellent  green  manure,  said  to  supply  all  the  needed  soil  food. 

Pests. — A  small  beetle,  called  the  “branch  bubock,”  bores  holes  in 
the  branches,  killing  them.  This  beetle  has  a  natural  enemy  in  the 
wasp,  which  lives  in  the  coffee  gardens,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
do  more  than  cut  away  the  branches. 

A  leaf  louse  attacks  the  trees  yearly  in  most  districts,  which  stops 
the  growth  of  the  tree.  When  normal  rains  come  the  lice  are  killed 
by  their  natural  enemy,  a  fungus  which  does  not  develop  until  the 
rains  set  in.  No  preventive  has  been  found.  This  tree  louse  is  the 
chief  cause  of  low  production,  as  it  prevents  the  strength  going  from 
the  leaves  to  the  buds. 

COST  OF  COFFEE  PRODUCTION  ON  AN  ESTATE  IN  EAST  JAVA. 

Before  rubber  became  an  important  crop  in  Java  coffee  growing 
was  the  chief  plantation  crop  next  to  sugar,  and  when  the  rubber 
culture  developed  coffee  was  naturally  looked  to  for  a  catch  crop, 
as  the  machinery  and  other  equipment,  as  well  as  an  ample  supply 
of  trained  labor,  was  already  at  hand.  The  following  figures  are 
actual  costs  of  the  1919  crop  of  coffee  on  an  estate  in  east  Java: 


[Florin= $0,402  mint  par;  picul=136  pounds.] 


Details  of  expenditure. 

Total  cost. 

Cost 

per  picul. 

Upkeep  of  coffee  garden  (principally  pruning) . 

Florins. 

7, 854. 80 
11,866.47 
4,09122 
1,262.00 
493.  50 
2, 092  44 
27,241.12 

Florins. 
3.98 
6.01 
2. 07 
.64 
.25 
1.06 
13.80 

Plucking,  supervision,  and  extra  watchmen . 

Manufacturing,  sorting,  upkeep  of  machinery  and  drying  houses,  and  firewood . 

Sacking .  . 

Transportation  from  estate  to  station . 

Transportation  from  station  to  Soerabaya . 

25  per  cent  of  general  charges . . 

Total  actual  cost  of  production  of  1,974  piculs  of  coffee,  exclusive  of  interest  on 
capital . 

54,  901.61 

# 

Actual  cost  per  picul  laid  down  at  Soerabaya,  exclusive  of  interest  on  capital. 

27.81 

126  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


This  coffee  was  planted  as  a  catch  crop  for  rubber,  and  there¬ 
fore  the  larger  part  of  the  interest  is  chargeable  against  rubber. 
The  weather  conditions  in  1919  were  unfavorable  to  coffee  produc¬ 
tion,  and  the  above  crop  was  1,000  piculs  (136,000  pounds)  under 
the  estimate. 

Harvesting . — Coffee  crops  vary  largely  from  year  to  year,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  quantity  and  timeliness  of  the  rainfall.  When  there 
is  a  large  crop  the  harvesters  are  paid  less  per  picul  than  when  the 
crop  is  small,  ranging  from  60  florin  cents  to  1.20  florins  for  1  picul 
of  berries  delivered  at  the  factory  or  receiving  station. 

Factory  charges. — The  charge  for  milling,  air  drying,  kiln  dry¬ 
ing,  hulling,  and  fine  sorting  will  vary  from  2.50  to  3  florins  per 
picul,  according  to  the  organization  and  availability  of  expert 
labor. 


ESTIMATED  COST  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  COFFEE  ESTATE. 


The  following  estimate  of  costs  of  development  of  1,000  bouws 
(1,754  acres)  from  native  jungle  to  a  full  producing  Kobusta  coffee 
plantation  at  the  end  of  eight  years,  and  estimate  of  revenue  based 
on  a  price  of  40  florins  per  picul  (136  pounds),  relates  to  a  Java 
coffee  estate  under  favorable  weather  conditions  and  based  on  labor 
prices  prevailing  in  June,  1920: 


FIRST  YEAR. 


Florins. 


Cost  of  cutting  and  clearing  the  jungle,  holing  and  plant¬ 


ing,  all-in  charges  at  the  time  of  completion  of  planting, 

400  bouws,  at  125  florins _  50,  000 

Upkeep  of  garden  for  the  last  two  or  three  months  of  the 

year,  400  bouws,  at  25  florins _ , _ 10,  000 

European  bungalows  and  native  houses _  20,  000 

Overhead  charges,  including  managers’  salaries,  super¬ 
vision,  taxes,  and  all  other  expenditure _  30,  000 


Total 


110,  000 


SECOND  YEAR. 


Clearing  and  planting,  400  bouws,  at  125  florins _  50, 000 

Upkeep  400  bouws  young  gardens,  at  25  florins _ 10,  000 

Upkeep  400  bouws  gardens  1  year  old,  at  50  florins _  20, 000 

European  bungalows  and  native  houses _  20,  000 

Overhead  charges _  30,  000 


Total _  130,  000 


THIRD  YEAR. 


Clearing  and  planting,  200  bouws,  at  125  florins _  25,  000 

Upkeep  200  bouws  young  gardens,  at  25  florins _  5,  000 

Upkeep  800  bouws  garden  1  and  2  years  old,  at  50  florins _  40,  000 

European  bungalows  and  native  houses _ 10,  000 

Overhead  charges _ • _  30,  000 


Total _  110,  000 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


127 


FOURTH  YEAR. 

Upkeep  600  bouws  gardens  1  and  2  years  old,  at  50  florins—  30,  000 


Upkeep  400  bouws  gardens  3  years  old,  at  40  florins _ 16,  000 

Establishment  (factories,  warehouses,  etc.) _  25,000 

Overheard  charges -  35,  000 


Total _ 

Total  expenditure  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year - 

Cost  of  harvesting  1,000  piculs  (400  bouws  producing  21  piculs  per 
bouw)  at  a  cost  of  11  florins  per  picul  (plucking,  6  florins;  manu¬ 
facture,  3  florins ;  packing,  0.65  florin ;  transport  to  harbor,  1.35 
florins) _ 


FIFTH  YEAR. 


Upkeep  of  400  bouws  of  garden  4  years  old,  at  30  florins 

per  bouw _ 12,  000 

Upkeep  of  400  bouws  of  garden  3  years  old,  at  40  florins _ 16,  000 

Upkeep  of  200  bouws  of  garden  2  years  old,  at  50  florins _ 10,  000 

Establishment _  25,  000 

Overhead _  40,  000 


Total _ 

Cost  of  harvesting  4,000  piculs  (400  bouws  producing  21  piculs  per 
bouw;  400  bouws  producing  71  piculs  per  bouw),  at  9.50  florins 
per  picul  (plucking,  5  florins;  manufacture,  2.50  florins;  packing, 
0.65  florin;  transport,  1.35  florins) - 

SIXTH  YEAR. 


Upkeep  800  bouws  gardens  4  and  5  years  old,  at  30  florins _  24,  000 

Upkeep  200  bouws  gardens  3  years  old,  at  40  florins _  8,  000 

Establishment _ 10,  000 

Overhead  charges -  40,  000 


Total _ 

Cost  of  harvesting  7,500  piculs  (200  bouws  producing  21  piculs  per 
bouw,  400  bouws  producing  71  piculs  and  400  bouws  producing  10 
piculs  per  bouw),  at  9  florins  per  picul  (plucking,  4.50  florins; 
manufacture,  2.50  florins ;  packing,  0.65  florin ;  transport,  1.35 
florins)  _ 


SEVENTH  YEAR. 


Upkeep  gardens,  1,000  bouws,  at  30  florins _  30,  000 

Overhead  charges _ _ _  50,  000 


Total _ 

Cost  of  harvesting  9,500  piculs  (800  bouws  producing  10  piculs  per 
bouw  and  200  bouws  producing  71  piculs  per  bouw),  at  8.50 
florins  per  picul  (plucking,  4  florins;  manufacture,  2.50  florins; 
packing,  0.65  florin;  transport,  1.35  florins) _ 

EIGHTH  AND  FOLLOWING  YEARS. 


Upkeep  gardens,  1,000  bouws,  at  30  florins _ _ _  30,  000 

Overhead  charges _  60,  000 


Total _ 

Cost  of  harvesting  10,000  piculs  (1,000  bouws  producing  10  piculs 
per  bouw),  at  8.50  florins  per  picul,  specification  as  above _ 


i 


106,  000 
456,  000 

11,  000 

103,  000 

38,  000 

82,  000 

67,  500 

80,  000 

80.  750 

90.  000 
85,  000 
,  093,  250 


1  This  does  not  include  interest  on  capital  investment. 


128  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


ESTIMATE  OF  BEVENUE. 

Fourth-year  sale  of  1,000  piculs,  at  40  florins - 

Fifth-year  sale  of  4,000  piculs,  at  40  florins - 

Sixth-year  sale  of  7,500  piculs,  at  40  florins - 

Seventh-year  sale  of  9,500  piculs,  at  40  florins - 

Eighth-year  sale  of  10,000  piculs,  at  40  florins _ 


Florins. 
40,  000 
160,  000 
300,  000 
380,  000 
400,  000 


Total  revenue _  1,  280,  000 

The  total  costs  of  European  bungalows  and  native  houses  are  esti¬ 
mated  at  50,000  florins,  and  the  total  costs  of  the  establishment, 
machinery,  and  factory  buildings  at  60,000  florins. 

Clearing  and  planting  of  1,000  bouws  at  once  would  be  too  large 
an  undertaking.  It  is  better  to  divide  this  work  over  three  years. 

The  results  of  this  scheme  can  easily  be  reached  when  no  prolonged 
droughts  are  prevailing. 

For  Sumatra  and  the  other  islands  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the 
estimates  by  25  to  30  per  cent  under  existing  conditions. 

About  March  of  each  year  Messrs.  Gijselman  &  Steup,  brokers, 
of  Batavia  and  Soerabaya,  publish  a  statement  giving  the  most  au¬ 
thoritative  figures  obtainable  of  the  production  of  the  previous  year 
and  an  estimate  of  the  forthcoming  crop.  Their  estimates  are  made 
on  a  wide  and  thorough  knowledge  of  conditions  and  are  considered 
to  be  very  reliable. 

SHIPMENTS  OF  COFFEE. 

The  ports  of  shipments  of  coffee  during  1919  and  quantities  ex¬ 
ported  were  as  follows : 


Ports. 

Robusta. 

lava 

(Ara- 

bica). 

Liberia. 

All 

others. 

Soerabaya . 

Metric 

tons. 

58, 716 
6,117 

Metric 

tons. 

8, 139 

Metric 

tons. 

1,025 

Metric 

tons. 

3,909 

Tandjoengpriok,  Batavia . 

3'  643 

'472 

4, 075 

Semarang . 

5, 834 

631 

222 

Pasoeroean . 

3'  774 

318 

Banjoewangi . 

l'  348 

Probolinggo . 

1,208 

Panaroekan . 

1,098 

351 

Belawan  Deli,  Sumatra . 

1, 715 

519 

858 

Tandjoengbalai,  Sumatra . 

19 

Palembang,  Sumatra . 

6, 543 

70 

99 

Sibolga,  Sumatra . 

402 

78 

Padang,  Sumatra . 

1,722 

3, 965 

33 

Benkoelen,  Sumatra . 

127 

13 

Macassar,  Celebes . 

2,187 

42 

16 

Menado,  Celebes . 

265 

184 

Pabeau/Bali . 

715 

Benoa,  Bali . 

104 

Not  shown . 

772 

289 

48 

24 

Total . 

89, 641 

20, 420 

3, 398 

i  8,230 

1  Exported  as  follows:  Netherlands.  1,271  tons;  United  States,  918  tons;  Great  Britain, 
117;  France,  897;  Scandinavia,  4,795';  Singapore,  230;  and  all  others,  2. 


These  ports  draw  on  a  very  wide  hinterland,  and  the  figures  indi¬ 
cate  only  in  a  broad  way  the  localities  of  production. 

In  pre-war  years  and  up  to  1915  the  coffee  crops  were  shipped 
within  the  year  following  production,  but  the  lack  of  tonnage  in 
1917  and  1918  made  it  impossible  to  ship  in  those  years.  The  1917 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


129 


crop  was  not  off  the  market  until  1919,  and  some  of  the  1918  crop  was 
held  over  to  1920. 

EXPORTS  OF  ROBUSTA  COFFEE. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  Robusta  coffee,  by  coun¬ 
tries,  and  also  that  part  shipped  from  Java  and  Madoera  and  from 
the  Outer  Possessions: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
4,270 
12 

6 

2,917 

260 

218 

Metric  tons. 
18,335 
44 
12 

Metric  tons. 
3, 747 
280 

Metric  tons. 
34, 225 
23,754 
3, 818 
9,343 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

France . 

Germany . 

Scandinavia . 

194 

154 

5,346 
1, 944 
249 
1,462 
8,718 
29 
15 
62 
165 
331 

Belgium . 

Canada . 

Singapore . 

90 

25 

597 

74 

3,370 

21 

311 

1, 571 
783 
434 

Penang . 

Hongkong . 

Japan . 

Australia . 

243 

902 

33 

240 

All  other . 

Total . 

8, 943 

19, 529 

10, 671 

89,461 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

8,437 

506 

16, 807 
2,722 

9,890 

781 

78, 522 
10, 939 

Outer  Possessions . 

EXPORTS  OF  JAVA  (ARABICA)  COFFEE. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  Java  (Arabica)  coffee, 
by  countries,  for  Java  and  Madoera  and  for  the  Outer  Possessions 
separately : 


Countries. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Metric  tons. 
2,639 

Metric  tons. 
1,320 

Metric  tons. 
339 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
2  350 

Outer  Possessions . 

1, 539 

3, 353 

26 

3, 245 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

93 

505 

21 

2, 707 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,068 

410 

1,419 

851 

2'  243 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

214 

7 

75 

Outer  Possessions . 

59 

13 

118 

France: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

923 

96 

Outer  Possessions . 

215 

6 

Germany: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

51 

Outer  Possessions . 

85 

Scandinavia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

75 

145 

348 

6, 485 

Outer  Possessions . 

601 

l'  043 

Other  Europe: 

Java  ana  Madoera . 

521 

49 

Outer  Possessions . 

64 

Singapore: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

396 

61 

402 

142 

659 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,064 

434 

560 

460 

995 

Penang: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

6 

Outer  Possessions . 

26 

8 

Hongkong: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

6 

5 

1 

14 

Outer  Possessions . 

66 

3 

21 

3 

130 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Countries. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Metric  tons. 
8 

Metric  tons. 
1 

Metric  tons. 
27 

Metric  tons. 
15 

Metric  tons. 

Outer  Possessions . 

8 

Australia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

69 

229 

99 

120 

Outer  Possessions . 

11 

Canada: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

5 

Outer  Possessions . 

9 

All  other: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

391 

1 

54 

6 

137 

Outer  Possessions . 

53 

2 

21 

38 

67 

Total . 

10, 107 

5, 702 

3,801 

1,994 

20, 420 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . . 

5, 293 
4, 814 

1,489 

1,703 

2,098 

645 

12, 678 
7, 742 

Outer  Possessions . 

4;  213 

1,349 

EXPORTS  OF  LIBERIA  COFFEE. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  exports  of  Liberia  coffee,  by 
countries,  and  also  that  part  shipped  from  Java  and  Madoera  and 
from  the  Outer  Possessions: 


Countries. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1,292 
141 

Metric  tons. 
629 

Metric  tons. 

4 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,225 

United  States . 

43 

73 

162 

Great  Britain . 

166 

12 

France . 

4 

* 

Germany . 

24 

Scandinavia . 

3 

390 

108 

1,211 

3 

757 

137 

Other  European . 

82 

Singapore . 

415 

321 

190 

116 

Penang . 

416 

49 

32 

15 

Hongkong . . 

3 

Japan . 

22 

Australia . 

1 

All  other . 

49 

65 

2 

15 

Total . 

2,592 

1  119 

716 

402 

3,378 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1, 457 

510 

574 

280 

2, 150 
1,228 

Outer  Possessions . 

l'  135 

609 

142 

122 

Coffee  was  formerly  grown  to  some  extent  on  the  Malay  Penin¬ 
sula,  but  suffered  from  the  diseases  that  attacked  the  coffee  of  Java 
and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  success  of  the  cultivation  of  rub¬ 
ber  on  the  peninsula  crowded  out  this  culture,  and  although  there 
are  some  few  planters  who  grow  it  for  local  consumption,  cultiva¬ 
tion  may  be  said  to  have  ceased. 

TEA. 

The  successful  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  tea  dates  from  1878 
(after  the  Government  had  given  up  the  monopoly),  wdien  private 
planters  imported  seed  from  Assam,  British  India.  In  1882  the 
Soekaboemische  Landbouwvereeniging  (Soekaboemi  Agricultural 
Society)  was  organized  to  further  the  interests  of  the  member  tea 
planters,  and  10  years  later  the  Government  established  a  tea  experi¬ 
mental  garden  and  a  laboratory,  where  scientific  research  is  carried 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


131 


on.  Later  the  planters  formed  an  association  under  the  name  of  the 
Thee  Expert  Bureau,  to  which  samples  of  tea  are  sent  to  be  tested 
and  reported  upon. 

The  Government  official  statement  of  areas  under  tea  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1919,  gives  the  total  acreage  as  232,813,  of  which  210,694  acres 
were  in  Java  and  22,119  in  the  Outer  Possessions. 

There  are  approximately  350  tea  estates  in  western  Java  and  the 
Government  of  Sumatra  East  Coast,  but  many  of  these  are  grouped 
in  such  a  way  that  one  factory  serves  several  estates.  Most  of  these 
estates  in  Ja<va  are  in  the  mountain  districts  in  the  Preanger  Regen¬ 
cies  and  the  Residency  of  Batavia,  but  there  are  a  few  on  the  higher 
slopes  of  the  volcanoes  in  central  and  eastern  Java.  In  the  Sumatra 
East  Coast  district  are  a  number  of  estates  in  the  vicinity  of  Siantar. 

GRADES  OF  TEA. 

The  grades  of  tea  in  the  Batavia  market  are  shown  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  list.  The  prices  quoted  on  the  Batavia  market  on  August  14, 
1919,  are  given  to  indicate,  roughly,  the  relative  values  of  these 
grades. 

[ Florin = SO. 402;  florin  cent=  of  a  florin.] 


Grade. 

Price  per  \ 
kilo  (1.102 
pounds). 

Orange  pekoe,  fair  to  good . 

Florin  cents. 
50  to  60 

Pekoes,  fair  to  good . 

43  to  55 

Pekoe  souchongs  and  souchongs,  fair  to  good . 

43  to  48 

Broken  orange  pekoes,  fair  to  good . . . 

45  to  64 

Broken  pekoes,  fair  to  good . 

41  to  61 

Broken  teas,  fair  to  good . 

32  to  52 

Fannings  and  dust,  clean,  colory . 

20  to  50 

This  range  of  prices  can  not  be  taken  as  an  exact  estimate  of  rela¬ 
tive  values,  as  it  is  not  natural  for  broken  pekoes  to  sell  at  a  higher 
price  than  the  pekoes,  but  the  stronger  market  for  broken  teas  often 
puts  the  price  of  the  poorer  styled  teas  (which  are  just  as  good  in 
quality  as  the  whole  leaves)  at  a  higher  figure  than  the  fancy  grades. 

Tea  is  sold  on  sample  in  the  Batavia  market.  The  agreement  of 
sale  specifies  the  quantity,  estate  mark,  grade,  and  price.  Quality 
is  specified  “  as  sample  ”  unless  some  other  arrangement  has  been 
made,  which  is  unusual.  Packing  is  specified,  giving  the  type  of 
chests  in  which  the  tea  is  packed,  time  and  place  of  delivery,  and 
terms  of  payment. 

THE  TEA  MARKET. 

Before  the  war  very  little  tea  was  sold  on  the  Java  market  on  firm 
orders,  the  custom  being  to  consign,  usualty  through  Java  export 
houses,  to  Amsterdam  and  London  commission  houses.  On  its  arrival 
in  Europe  it  Avas  put  into  the  auctions,  which  were  attended  toy  all 
the  principal  buyers  for  the  world’s  markets.  Direct  shipments 
were  also  made  to  European  Russia  on  orders  placed  in  Holland  or 
in  England,  and  considerable  quantities  of  fannings  and  dust  were 

19878°— 23 - 10 


132  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

shipped  to  China,  where  they  were  put  into  blends  of  block  tea  for 
the  Russian  markets.  This  distribution  was  maintained  with  varia¬ 
tions  in  selling  arrangements  until  early  in  1917,  when  shipping  was 
thoroughly  disorganized  and  the  Russian  market  disappeared  en¬ 
tirely.  Early  in  that  year  the  tea  expert  in  charge  of  the  Thee 
Expert  Bureau  was  sent  to  the  United  States  to  dispose  of  10,000 
cases  which  were  consigned  to  him  at  San  Francisco.  The  success 
of  this  venture  led  to  consignments  to  the  United  States  in  1918  of 
over  55  per  cent  of  the  entire  year’s  export.  The  returns  from  these 
consignments  were  satisfactory,  considering  that  all  grades  of  teas 
were  offered  on  a  market  accustomed  only  to  whole  leaf  and  nor¬ 
mally  not  well  disposed  to  Java  teas.  The  heavy  overstocks  in 
America,  however,  closed  that  market  to  the  1919  crop,  except  for 
the  finest  grades  of  whole  leaf,  but  such  sales  as  were  made  for  actual 
consumption  and  the  speculator  market  kept  prices  at  a  fairly 
profitable  level  until  April,  1920,  when  a  sudden  break  occurred, 
with  a  gradual  drop  from  57-80  florin  cents  per  half  kilo  for  broken 
orange  pekoe  on  March  25,  f.  o.  b.  Java  ports,  to  35-53  cents  on  July  1, 
after  which  prices  were  nominal,  with  but  little  business  offering,  the 
nominal  quotations  on  the  Soerabaya  market  going  to  25-38  in  De¬ 
cember. 

While  some  of  the  plantations  continued  to  manufacture  and  con¬ 
sign  to  Europe,  many  of  the  plantations  were  forced  to  stop  picking 
until  the  latter  part  of  March,  1921,  when  a  market  developed  for 
the  finest  qualities  of  orange  pekoes,  pekoes,  and  broken  orange 
pekoes.  These  prices  induced  some  of  the  estates  to  resume  picking 
pekoe  leaves.  On  April  7,  1921,  ordinary  to  good  broken  orange 
pekoes  and  fine  broken  orange  pekoes  were  quoted  on  the  Soerabaya 
market  28-40  and  42-65,  respectively,  and  for  these  and  better  grades 
there  was  a  gradual  rise,  with  slight  fluctuations,  to  40-50  and  60-85 
as  the  year  closed,  with  a  reasonable  demand.  The  total  export  of 
Java  up  to  September  30,  1921,  is  shown  in  the  monthly  customs 
returns  as  21,755  metric  tons,  against  33,300  tons  for  the  same  period 
in  1920  and  36,644  tons  in  1919. 

The  deflation  period  outlined  above  was  more  serious  in  the  tea 
industry  than  in  any  of  the  other  major  products  of  the  colony,  as 
prices  went  far  below  cost  of  production.  Improvement  plans  for 
factories  and  in  methods  of  transportation  that  would  have  involved 
heavy  expenditures  for  materials  were  indefinitely  postponed  and 
the  life  of  the  industry  was  seriously  threatened.  As  the  market 
recovers  and  estates  resume  normal  production  at  profitable  prices 
these  plans  will  be  revived,  and  the  expenditure  of  considerable 
sums  will  be  necessary  for  repairs  and  improvements. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  14— TEA  PICKERS,  BU ITENZORG,  JAVA. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


MENANGKABAU  MALAY  CHIEF’S  HOUSE. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


133 


EXPORTS  OF  TEA. 


The  exports  of  tea,  by  countries,  are  given  in  the  following  table, 
covering  the  period  prior  to  1914,  showing  the  gradual  growth  of 
the  industry  and  of  the  markets  up  to  that  date : 


Countries. 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Netherlands . 

United  States  and  Canada. . . 
Great  Britain . 

6,586 

28 

6,935 

7, 107 

9, 100 

9,234 

8, 529 
88 

10, 273 
183 

12,770 

172 

12,180 

205 

4,114 

4,962 

4,158 

5,729 

5,572 

5,930 

7,032 

9,620 

7,524 

Russia . 

508 

281 

369 

585 

620 

48 

909 

665 

2, 122 

Australia . 

106 

80 

328 

153 

318 

579 

2,531 

2,947 

2,014 

Singapore . 

All  other . 

1147 

102 

896 

935 

441 

1,803 

1,398 

827 

283 

145 

93 

425 

90 

452 

1,456 

518 

866 

2,219 

Total . 

11,634 

12, 453 

13,283 

16, 592 

16,637 

18,433 

22, 844 

27,867 

26, 547 

1  Probably  largely  for  transshipment  to  China. 


The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  tea  during  the  period  of 
disorganization  of  markets  and  the  partial  readjustment  in  1919: 


Countries. 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

13,653 

19 

19, 668 

66 

14,928 

20 

United  States . 

231 

5 

358 

35 

348 

15 

Great  Britain . 

10, 139 

46 

13,932 

143 

13,050 

127 

Frannfi  . . . . 

11 

30 

Other  Europe 

111 

8 

44 

Russia . \ . 

1,317 

27 

4,784 

19 

10,923 

27 

China . 

560 

1,638 

1,411 

1,858 

354 

2,903 

British  Tndia . . . 

137 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

5io 

1,415 

25 

1,018 

Australia  and  New  Zealand . . . 

3,386 

31 

3,568 

51 

3,217 

Canada . 

121 

3 

192 

14 

51 

.All  other . 

90 

32 

35 

Total . 

30, 129 

1,777 

45, 541 

2,211 

43,965 

3,092 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

29,932 

1,777 

44, 867 

2,211 

42,394 

3,092 

Outer  Possessions . 

197 

674 

1,571 

1917 

1918 

1919 

vOiuibriv/w* 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Leaf. 

Dust. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

639 

26  968 

35 

United  States . 

'  14,541 

123 

16, 5S9 

140 

2, 342 

320 

Great  Britain . 

2, 134 

6 

44 

14, 043 

120 

France . 

18 

292 

Other  Europe . 

9 

85 

305 

Russia . 

8,519 

7 

452 

China . 

369 

2,985 

373 

406 

259 

864 

British  India . 

72 

21 

101 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

630 

i 

2,097 

1,213 

Australia  and  New  Zealand . . . 

5, 190 

92 

5,180 

6;  624 

666 

Canada . 

2, 555 

4,161 

633 

1 

All  other . 

137 

391 

294 

1 

Total . 

34. 795 

3,214 

29, 411 

546 

53,074 

2,006 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoora . 

33,253 

3,214 

27, 189 

546 

48,622 

2,006 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,542 

2,222 

4,452 

3  34  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

TOBACCO. 

Java  tobacco  is  distinct  from  Sumatra  tobacco  in  quality  and  in 
the  conditions  surrounding  its  growth  and  marketing,  although 
there  are  many  points  in  common.  Java  tobacco  is  grown  by  natives 
working  independently  of  foreign  supervision;  by  natives  working 
under  the  supervision  of  European  companies  that  supply  them 
with  seed  and  contract  for  their  crops  in  advance;  by  European 
planters  who  lease  the  land  from  the  natives  and  hire  them  to  work 
at  day  wages;  and  by  European  companies  leasing  large  tracts  of 
land  from  the  native  sultans  and  princes,  together  with  the  right  to 
the  labor  of  the  natives  of  the  district. 

In  Sumatra  the  tobacco  is  grown  on  large  European-owned  es¬ 
tates,  where  the  labor  is  recruited  from  the  surrounding  country, 
from  China,  and  especially  from  Java.  (See  “Contract  labor  law, 
popularly  known  as  Poenale  Sanctie,”  p.  30.)  The  contract-labor 
system  permits  of  the  most  rigid  control  of  every  operation,  and 
tobacco  culture  there  has  reached  a  high  stage  of  development. 

TOBACCO  CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  by  the  natives  of  Java,  like  most  of  the 
native  agricultural  effort,  is  carried  on  with  no  conscious  effort  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  product.  There  may  be  some  indirect 
influence  on  the  native  culture  from  the  “  proof  stations  ”  and  Euro¬ 
pean  plantations,  but  the  consensus  of  opinion  in  Java  is  that  such 
differences  in  quality  as  exists  in  the  native  production  are  due  to  the 
influences  of  the  climate  and  soil. 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  by  Europeans  or  under  their  supervi¬ 
sion  is  centered  in  the  Residency  of  Besoeki,  the  easternmost  political 
division  of  Java,  and  in  the  “Vorstenlanden,”  which  includes  the 
principalities  of  Djokjakarta  and  Soerakarta.  While  the  general 
process  of  cultivation  is  the  same  in  both  districts,  the  underlying 
conditions  of  climate,  soil,  labor,  and  land  tenure  are  not  the  same, 
and  the  product  is  of  different  qualities. 

Land  tenure. — The  tobacco  lands  in  the  Vorstenlanden  lie  at  the 
foot  of  the  Mirapi  Mountain  on  the  south  and  east  of  that  volcano, 
with  the  slope  of  Mount  Lawoe  rising  on  the  eastern  side.  The  State 
Railways  and  the  Netherlands  Indies  Railways  run  through  the  dis¬ 
trict,  and  the  shorter  haul  to  tidewater  at  Semarang  gives  the  latter 
road  the  bulk  of  the  transportation. 

These  lands  all  belong  to  the  Sultans  of  Solo  and  Djokjakarta  and 
to  their  princes,  who  have  leased  them  to  the  plantation  companies 
on  terms  covering  from  12  to  25  years,  together  with  the  right  to 
the  labor  of  the  native  population  in  exchange  for  the  rice  lands 
which  they  cultivate.  This  arrangement  is  much  involved  and  has 
been  the  subject  of  so  much  political  agitation  that  the  Government 
has  enacted  regulations  forbidding  new  leases  or  extension  of  present 
leases  under  this  system.  Under  the  new  laws  the  companies  pay 
rent  to  the  princes  for  the  land  actually  cultivated  and  pay  cash  for 
their  labor,  while  the  natives  hire  their  lands  from  the  princes  under 
regulations  designed  to  relieve  them  of  the  injustices  to  which  it  was 
claimed  they  had  been  subjected.  In  Besoeki  the  land  is  leased  from 
the  natives  in  the  same  manner  that  the  sugar  growers  get  their  land. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


135 


The  local  population  is  employed  when  possible,  and  a  large  annual 
influx  of  Madurese  gives  them  a  convenient  reserve  for  the  rush 
seasons. 

Rotation  of  crops. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  begins  in  April, 
as  soon  as  the  rice  crop  is  off,  and  is  turned  back  to  the  natives,  theo¬ 
retically,  by  January  1.  In  the  Yorstenlanden,  under  the  new  regu¬ 
lations,  the  companies  are  given  a  rebate  on  their  land  rental  if  they 
turn  the  land  back  before  that  date,  and  are  subject  to  a  heavy  fine 
if  they  hold  it  longer.  A  further  strong  incentive  to  finish  at  this 
time  is  the  fact  that  when  the  lands  are  held  beyond  this  date  the 
whole  cycle  of  rotation  is  retarded  and  the  planters  will  be  delayed 
in  putting  in  their  succeeding  tobacco  crops.  This  cycle  includes  one 
crop  of  tobacco  from  April  to  December  and  three  rice  crops  requir¬ 
ing  from  four  to  five  months  to  mature,  making  24  months  in  all.  In 
Besoeki  three  crops  of  rice  are  not  usually  possible,  and  one  crop  of 
maize,  beans,  or  other  “poloewidjo”  is  raised  instead. 

SYSTEM  OF  CULTIVATION  IN  THE  VORSTENLANDEN. 

First  operation. — The  rice  straw  remaining  on  the  fields  is  collected 
and  burned. 

Second  operation. — A  main  drainage  ditch  is  made  around  the 
field,  leaving  space  on  each  side  for  roadways.  These  ditches  are 
connected  with  the  Government  canal  system,  or,  if  the  land  is  on  a 
sharp  incline,  it  is  drained  into  the  lower  rice  fields. 

Third  opei'ation. — Secondary  ditches  are  made  150  feet  apart,  the 
full  length  of  the  field.  These  are  called  the  150-foot  ditches. 

Fourth  operation. — Between  the  150-foot  ditches  cross  ditches  are 
made  at  an  interval  of  30  feet,  called  the  30-foot  ditches.  The  small¬ 
est  unit  of  cultivation  is  a  bed  30  by  50  feet,  16  of  which  make  one 
bouw  (1  bouw =1.7537  acres). 

Fifth  operation  ( A ). — Two  systems  of  soil  working  are  followed. 
Under  one  system  the  land  is  plowed  with  a  native  plow  fitted  with 
an  iron  point  to  an  approximate  depth  of  6  inches. 

Sixth  operation  (A). — As  soon  as  plowing  is  finished  a  fertilizer, 
consisting  of  cattle  manure,  leaves,  wood  ashes,  and  other  village 
waste  (no  human  manure  is  contained  in  this  fertilizer),  is  put  on 
the  land  in  a  proportion  of  24  cubic  meters  to  a  bouw  (about  18 
cubic  yards  per  acre).  The  supply  usually  equals  the  demand.  This 
mixture  has  about  six-tenths  of  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  a  full 
analysis  shows  little  that  will  feed  the  soil.  Its  peculiarly  beneficial 
qualities  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  bacteria  which  it  contains.  No 
artificial  manure  can  take  its  place,  but  a  combination  with  sulphate 
of  ammonia  produces  excellent  results  when  the  soil  is  poor,  although 
on  the  better  soils  this  manure  is  all  that  is  required  for  the  best 
results. 

Seventh  operation  (A). — After  the  fertilizer  is  put  on  the  ground 
a  15-incli  hole  is  made  in  one  corner  of  the  field  and  the  soil  from  the 
adjoining  area  is  patchoeled1  into  it,  the  native  working  back  and 
forth  across  the  30- foot  width  until  the  section  is  finished. 

Fifth  operation  ( B ). — No  plowing  is  done  under  this  system.  The 
30-foot  width  is  marked  off  in  3-foot  sections.  A  patchoel  depth 


1  A  derivative  of  the  word  “  patchoel.”  a  heavy  hoe  universally  used  by  the  natives  in 
place  of  a  spade,  rake,  or  hoe. 


136  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

of  soil  is  taken  from  each  alternate  section  and  laid  on  the  adjoining 
area,  after  which  the  subsoil  is  worked  to  a  depth  of  15  inches. 
When  the  soil  on  the  adjoining  area  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  returned 
to  its  original  place  and  the  operation  is  repeated  on  the  other  half. 

Sixth  operation  ( B ). — Some  estates  apply  the  village  manure  be¬ 
fore  replacing  the  soil,  while  others  wait  until  leveling  off,  after 
which  it  is  turned  under  to  a  patchoel  depth. 

This  latter  system  is  preferred  by  many  planters,  as  it  is  easier  to 
supervise  the  workmen. 

Seed  beds. — The  size  of  the  seed  beds  is  3  by  10  feet,  and  for 
very  bouw  (If  acres)  to  be  planted  there  are  30  of  these  beds,  one 
workman  taking  care  of  one-third  of  a  bouw,  including  10  seed  beds. 
The  preparation  of  these  seed  beds  begins  before  any  other  work  is 
done,  and  by  the  end  of  July  they  are  ready  for  the  seed.  From  10 
to  14  days  later  all  or  a  part  of  the  balance  is  seeded,  according  to  the 
plan  for  transplanting. 

Before  seeding,  the  soil  of  each  bed  is  given  100  grains  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia  mixed  with  100  grains  of  double  superphosphates,  or, 
if  it  is  impossible  to  get  this,  with  200  grains  of  “  JEnkel  ”  super¬ 
phosphates.  On  the  poorer  soil  the  use  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
alone  acts  as  a  poison,  which  is  shown  in  a  poorer  growth  than  if  none 
were  used. 

Planting — Eighth  operation. — The  first  transplanting  is  done  early 
in  September,  35  days  after  the  first  seed  beds  are  set  out.  The 
young  plants  are  placed  19  in  a  row  across  the  30-foot  width  and  49 
rows  to  the  150  feet  of  length.  Extra  plants  are  put  in  between  the 
permanent  rows  for  a  reserve. 

Tobacco  grows  quickly,  and  it  is  most  successful  when  it  receives 
its  moisture  at  the  right  time.  An  effort  is  made  to  plant  a  short 
time  before  the  rains  begin  so  that  the  root  system  will  be  developed 
before  the  rains  bring  on  a  rapid  leaf  growth.  In  order  to  have  a 
part  of  the  crop  reasonably  certain  to  meet  these  favorable  conditions, 
planting  is  done  in  two  and  sometimes  three  sections.  In  the  latter 
case  the  last  planting  is  either  a  fifth  or  a  tenth  of  the  whole,  as  it 
has  the  smallest  chance  of  getting  the  best  weather  conditions. 

Ninth  operation. — Within  15  days  of  planting  the  weak  or  dead 
plants  are  replaced  b}^  the  reserves,  and  at  this  time  from  4  to  6 
grams  of  dry  sulphate  of  ammonia  are  given  to  each  plant.  This 
work  is  done  by  women,  one  of  whom  makes  a  hole  near  the  plant 
with  a  pointed  stick,  while  another  measures  the  fertilizer  and  puts 
it  in  the  hole,  covering  it  with  soil.  No  phosphates  are  used  except 
in  the  seed  beds. 

Tenth  operation. — Continued  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  done  after 
the  young  plants  are  set,  and  as  they  grow  the  soil  is  banked  against 
them  to  stimulate  root  development. 

The  only  serious  pest  is  the  caterpillar.  In  Besoeki  the  leaves, 
while  still  in  the  nursery,  are  given  a  wash  of  lead  arsenate,  which 
is  usually  sufficient  protection.  In  the  Vorstenlanden  the  caterpillars 
are  picked  from  the  leaves  by  women  and  children. 

Sulphate  of  copper  is  used  to  cure  root  diseases. 

Labor. — In  the  Vorstenlanden  an  area  equal  to  the  area  under 
tobacco  cultivation  is  set  aside  for  native  cultures.  The  laborer  is 
required  to  give  an  amount  of  time  to  the  tobacco  culture  equal  to 
that  used  in  the  cultivation  of  rice. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


137 


In  the  Residency  of  Besoeki  the  population  is  largely  Madoerese. 
Men  are  paid  according  to  their  skill  in  the  work  they  have  to  do. 

JAVA  TOBACCO  GRADES. 

Java  leaf  wrapper  tobacco  is  either  consigned  to  the  estates’  agents 
in  Holland  or  sold  direct  by  the  estates.  American  buyers  have 
shown  an  interest  in  Java  leaf  during  the  past  few  years  and  visit 
the  principal  centers  yearly  to  make  their  selections.  The  “Amer¬ 
ican  assortment  ”  contains  only  the  largest  leaves  of  fine  texture  and 
light  color.  This  grade  is  not  sold  on  the  Soerabaya  market,  as  it 
is  only  grown  by  the  estates  under  European  control.  Each  estate 
growing  wrapper  tobacco  has  its  own  trade-mark,  which  is  recog¬ 
nized  in  the  markets. 

American  buyers  are  interested  in  only  the  finest  of  the  wrapper 
tobaccos,  and  practically  everything  in  Java  that  comes  within  the 
specifications  of  the  “American  assortment  ”  goes  to  the  United 
States,  while  the  balance  goes  principally  to  Holland. 

Krossak,  or  scrubs,  is  leaf  tobacco  of  grades  lower  than  wrapper 
tobaccos.  It  is  mostly  of  native  cultivation  and  is  graded  exactly 
according  to  size,  texture,  and  color. 

Krossak  grades . — Grade  A  A  comprises  only  the  longest  leaves, 
excluding  moist  and  unsound  qualities;  grade  A,  long  leaves,  with 
some  shorts  permitted,  and  slightly  thicker  and  darker  colors;  and 
grades  B  B,  B,  C  C,  and  C  are  graduated  in  size  and  quality  down 
to  D  grades.  The  minimum  length  of  leaves  in  these  lowest  grades, 
D  D  and  D,  is  a  span.  There  is  no  definite  limit  to  the  thickness  or 
shade;  it  is  only  when  the  leaves  are  nearly  black  that  they  may  be 
rejected. 

Assortments  must  have  65  per  cent  up  to  grade,  while  35  per  cent 
may  be  of  lower  grades.  Within  these  grades  are  many  subdivisions, 
so  that  there  are  literally  hundreds  of  grades  known  to  the  buyers 
The  above  grades  are  qualified  as  a  whole  by  the  district  in  which 
they  are  grown. 

Gekorven  is  a  stripped  and  cut  tobacco  used  by  the  natives  and 
when  exported  goes  either  to  Holland  or  to  the  near-by  oriental 
countries.  It  is  made  up  of  leaves  that  will  not  go  into  the  krossak 
grades  to  good  advantage,  but  are  of  fairly  good  quality.  It  is 
stripped  and  cut ;  hence  the  name  “  gekorven,”  meaning  cut.  There 
is  considerable  labor  attached  to  its  preparation,  which  is  account¬ 
able  for  the  higher  price  at  which  it  is  appraised  by  the  customs. 

Madoera  tobacco  is  grown  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  lying 
east  of  Java  and  separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  strait.  Tobacco 
from  Madoera  stands  as  high  as  any  in  the  krossak  grades.  The 
superior  quality  is  due  to  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  During 
the  past  few  j^ears  it  has  brought  better  prices  than  formerly,  as 
some  of  its  grades  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cigarettes. 

Besoeki  Residency,  including  Dj ember  district,  is  the  most  eastern 
of  Java’s  political  divisions.  The  tobacco  from  this  residency, 
which  bears  its  name,  is  grown  in  the  lowlands  between  Mount 
Raoeng  and  Mount  Argopoero  and  is  among  the  best  of  the  “  scrubs.” 
Besides  the  native  cultivation  there  are  large  areas  under  European 
control  which  produce  the  finer  types  of  leaf  tobacco.  An  important 


138  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


tobacco  proof  station  is  located  at  Dj ember,  in  the  center  of  the 
tobacco  district. 

Loemadjang  tobacco  takes  the  name  of  a  town  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Residency  of  Pasoeroean,  which  is  the  center  of  a  tobacco- 
growing  district  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  southeastern  slope  of  Smeroe 
Mountain.  The  quality  of  the  tobacco  raised  here  ranks  with  that 
of  Madoera  and  with  the  lower  grades  of  Besoeki. 

Malang  tobacco  comes  from  the  district  lying  to  the  east  of  Smeroe 
Mountain,  the  center  of  which  is  the  town  of  Malang.  The  eleva¬ 
tion  of  this  land  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  on  which  the  above- 
named  tobaccos  are  grown.  The  quality  is  poorer,  which  is  undoubt¬ 
edly  partly  due  to  climatic  differences. 

Kediri  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  lower  stretches  of  the  Kloet  and 
Wilis  Mountains.  It  ranks  with  Malang  tobacco,  among  the  poorest 
of  the  “scrubs.” 

Rembang  tobacco  is  grown  in  almost  every  part  of  the  residency 
of  that  name.  The  bulk  of  the  krossak  going  through  the  Soera- 
baya  market  comes  from  this  district  and  is  of  the  lowest  grade. 

Kedoe  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Merapi  and  Merbaboe 
Mountains  on  the  east  and  Soembing  and  Sendoro  Mountains  on  the 
west,  in  the  Residency  of  Kedoe.  Its  quality  is  between  that  of  the 
first-named  group  and  of  those  of  Rembang,  Kediri,  and  Malang. 
The  better  grade  produced  here  has  been  attributed  to  a  favorable 
climate  and  soil  and  to  better  seed  being  used. 

In  the  principalities  of  Djokjakarta  and  Soerakarta  very  exten¬ 
sive  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  carried  on  by  European-controlled 
estates  operating  in  an  association  which  maintains  a  proof  station 
with  a  scientific  staff. 

EXPORTS  OF  TOBACCO. 

Exports  of  tobacco  from  Java  and  Madoera,  exclusive  of  Deli 
leaf,  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands: 

Leaf  . 

Metric  tons. 
17,759 
42, 551 

Metric  tons. 
17,644 
53, 579 

Metric  tons. 
770 
4, 835 

497 

85 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
28, 433 
47,045 

329 

Krossak  . 

United  States: 

Leaf . 

400 

108 

Krossak  . 

Germany: 

Krossak . 

12 

Great  Britain: 

Leaf  . 

419 
3, 445 

886 

1,133 

840 
8, 517 

69 

1,046 

31 

165 

565 

Krossak . 

France: 

Leaf . 

562 

Krossak . 

Belgium: 

Leaf . 

Krossak . . 

Italy: 

Leaf . 

Krossak . 

Switzerland: 

Leaf . 

Krossak  . 

Spain: 

Krossak . 

858 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


139 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Scandinavian  countries: 

Leaf . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
294 

Metric  tons. 

488 

Krossak . 

21 

1,043 

4,045 

Port  Said  for  orders: 

Leaf . 

791 

Canada: 

Leaf . 

72 

Krossak . 

29 

Japan: 

Krossak . 

5 

Singapore: 

Leaf . 

11 

6 

227 

64 

Krossak . 

46 

54 

26 

Hongkong: 

Leaf . 

22 

11 

Krossak . 

8 

21 

China: 

Leaf . 

13 

Krossak . 

2 

Australia: 

Leaf . 

• 

32 

49 

37 

Krossak . . . 

60 

27 

73 

All  other: 

Leaf . 

4 

8 

5 

Krossak . 

11 

34 

7 

Total . 

60, 409 

71, 229 

6,890 

3, 242 

98, 459 

Total  exports  of: 

Leaf . 

17, 792 
42,617 

17,650 
53, 579 

1,878 

1,061 
2, 181 

32, 392 

Krossak . 

5,012 

66, 067 

Gekorven  1 . 

381 

771 

354 

202 

339 

Grand  total . 

60, 790 

72, 000 

7, 244 

3,444 

98, 798 

1  The  details  of  the  exports  of  “gekorven”  are  not  given;  this  trade  is  with  the  Netherlands  and  oriental 

ports. 


Inspection. — Many  fires  at  sea  have  been  caused  by  spontaneous 
combustion  of  insufficiently  dried  or  fermented  tobacco,  and  worm- 
infected  tobacco  has  damaged  much  sound  tobacco  in  transit,  so  the 
insurance  and  steamship  companies  have  effected  an  organization  to 
inspect  and  fumigate  all  tobacco  exported  from  Java. 

Brokers. — In  the  Soerabaya  market,  where  most  of  the  lower 
grades  are  sold,  transactions  are  usually  routed  through  brokers. 
(For  brokerage  rates  see  “Brokers  and  brokerages,”  p.  36G.) 

DELI  LEAF. 

•  •  # 

Deli  leaf  is  raised  in  and  near  the  district  of  Deli,  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Sumatra  East  Coast.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  total  produc¬ 
tion  is  on  estates  owned  or  controlled  by  the  Deli  Maatschappij,  a 
Dutch  company,  and  under  its  direct  management.  In  normal  times 
the  whole  product  is  shipped  to  Holland,  where  it  is  sold  to  buyers 
offering  the  highest  prices  in  sealed  bids,  and  practically  all  of  the 
best  grades  go  ultimately  to  the  United  States.  The  war  seriously 
disturbed  this  system  of  marketing,  and  during  1917,  1918,  and  1919 
shipments  were  made  direct  from  Belawan  Deli  to  the  United  States, 
but  in  1920  and  1921  the  old  market  conditions  were  reestablished. 


140  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  production  of  Deli  leaf,  in  metric  tons  and  in  bales  of  80  kilos, 
and  the  exports  from  1914  to  1920  were  as  follows : 


Year. 

Production 
in  bales. 

Production 
in  metric 
tons. 

Exports, 

metric 

tons. 

1914 . 

246,538 

232,900 

0) 

259,525 

266,000 

2 153,000 

2 146,520 

19, 723 
18, 633 
0) 

20, 762 
21,289 
212,240 

2 11,721 

16,730 
20,811 
20, 750 
4,888 
3,969 
37,226 
0) 

1915 . 

1916 . 

1917 . 

1918 . ... 

1919 . 

1920 . 

1  Not  known.  J  Approximately. 


The  Deli  Maatschappij  maintains  a  large  scientific  establishment 
at  Medan  for  experimental  work  and  for  analysis  of  soils  and  sup¬ 
plies. 

Grades  of  Deli  tobacco  ( Sumatra  leaf ). — The  following  grades 
were  submitted  by  the  Deli  Maatschappij  for  Sumatra  leaf,  the 
figure  1  representing  more  than  15  inches  and  the  figure  2  repre¬ 
senting  12  to  15  inches:  LY,  VI,  and  Y2,  light  fallow  (grayish)  ; 
VV1  and  VV2,  dark  fallow  (grayish)  ;  Ll  and  L2,  light;  LBl  and 
LB2,  light  brown;  Fl  and  F2,  dead  fallow;  Bl  and  B2,  brown; 
K1  and  K2,  dead. 

CROP  RESTRICTION,  COSTS,  AND  SELLING  PRICES. 

The  normal  tobacco  crop  of  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  district  is 
approximately  250,000  bales  of  80  kilos  each.  In  1919  and  1920  it 
was  agreed  by  the  planters  to  restrict  production  to  150,000  bales, 
but  the  high  prices  received  for  those  crops  wTere  so  satisfactory 
that  a  decision  was  reached  to  resume  normal  production. 

The  cost  of  production  of  the  1920  crop  was  estimated  at  $0.54 
(1.40  florins)  per  half  kilo  laid  down  at  Belawan  Deli,  exclusive 
of  taxation,  and  the  cost  laid  down  at  Amsterdam,  all  in,  at  $0.80. 
The  1920  crop  brought  from  7  to  8  florins  per  half  kilo  at  Amster¬ 
dam  for  average  American  assortments  and  the  finer  grades  went 
at  10  florins  and  higher. 

In  1920  .there  were  41,003  acres  under  cultivation  in  the  district, 
of  which  38,620  were  under  the  control  of  the  Deli  Maatschappij. 

Following  are  the  exports  of  tobacco  from  the  Outer  Possessions 
and  Deli  leaf  shipped  from  Java  and  Madoera: 


Countries  of  destination. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Deli  leaf: 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
24,553 

Metric  tons. 
20,740 

Metric  tons. 
2,870 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
26,055 
2,209 
2,567 
3,505 
164 

United  States . 

1,214 

1,896 

530 

Great  Britain . 

309 

Belgium . 

Seandinavia . 

120 

Singapore . 

410 

8 

43 

1,314 

27 

1,060 

1,451 

48 

Penang . 

782 

2 

23 

Hongkong . 

28 

2 

2 

Australia .  . . . 

69 

64 

All  other . 

3 

26 

11 

103 

Total  Deli  leaf . 

25,776 

239 

20,750 

4,487 

3,969 

37,226 

Other  than  Deli  leaf _ 

'  757 

355 

Gekorven  (cut  tobacco) . 

1,025 

869 

769 

637 

774 

Total  exports . 

27,040 

22,376 

5,611 

4,606 

38,000 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


141 


All  of  the  Deli  leaf  is  grown  in  the  Government  of  the  East  Coast 
of  Sumatra.  A  tobacco  of  poor  quality  is  grown  in  Padang,  on  the 
West  Coast,  and  in  the  Residency  of  Palembang,  all  of  which  is 
cut  and  shipped  out  as  “  gekorven,”  mostly  to  near-by  countries. 
The  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok,  both  in  the  Outer  Possessions,  grow 
tobacco,  most  of  which  finds  its  market  through  Soerabaya  and  is 
included  in  the  export  returns  of  Java  and  Madoera.  Tobacco  is 
grown  on  other  islands  of  the  archipelago,  and  it  is  either  consumed 
locally  or  finds  its  way  to  outside  markets  through  J ava  or  the  ports 
mentioned  above. 

TAPIOCA. 

The  volcanic  soils  of  Java  are  particularly  suited  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  cassava  plant  from  which  tapioca  is  made,  and  a  large  exten¬ 
sion  of  its  cultivation  is  possible.  The  cassava  root  is  one  of  the 
native  foods  and  is  generally  grown  throughout  Java  as  well  as  in 
a  large  part  of  Sumatra. 

The  cultivation  of  tapioca  is  very  largely  carried  on  by  natives, 
who  sell  that  part  of  their  product  not  wanted  for  their  own  consump¬ 
tion  to  Chinese  millers.  The  mills  are  all  known  to  the  brokers, 
exporters,  and  other  buyer’s  in  Batavia  and  Soerabaya,  and  samples 
of  their  products  are  on  file  wTith  the  larger  dealers  for  comparison 
with  lots  coming  forward  for  export.  Tapioca  is  sold  on  the  mill 
mark  and  the  quality  is  checked  by  these  standard  samples. 

The  Preanger  Regencies,  the  mountain  residency  of  west  Java, 
produce  the  largest  quantity  of  flour  tapioca,  which  finds  its  outlet 
through  Batavia’s  port.  This  is  almost  entirely  a  native  culture  and 
is  milled  by  Chinese.  A  few  very  large  plantations  have  been  de¬ 
veloped  in  east  Java  with  mills  in  connection. 

GRADES. 

In  the  local  markets  are  dozens  of  qualities  known  to  the  trade, 
based  on  the  factory  mark,  and  graded  according  to  color,  grit,  and 
fineness.  The  first  manufacture  of  tapioca  is  into  a  fine  flour,  from 
which  flake  and  pearl  tapioca  are  made. 

The  principal  grade  divisions  of  flour,  which  is  the  staple  tapioca 
product,  are  as  follows : 

Prime. — A  white  flour  with  a  very  distinct  “  grit.” 

Seconds. — Distinctly  inferior  to  “  prime  ”  in  both  color  and  grit. 
The  larger  mills  make  only  these  two  grades,  lower  grades  being 
given  or  sold  to  the  natives  for  food.  American  buyers  are  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  above  grades  only. 

Thirds — Still  poorer  in  color  and  have  none  of  the  grit  which  is 
a  test  for  the  good  flours. 

Grade  B3. — The  lowest  grade  of  flour  salable  in  European  mar¬ 
kets.  An  embargo  has  been  placed  on  the  export  of  this  grade,  but 
it  is  said  that  it  has  generally  been  evaded  by  the  smaller  mills. 

The  last  two  grades  mentioned  went  to  Europe  before  the  war. 

Kampong. — This  is  the  very  lowest  grade  and  is  sold  locally  for 
native  consumption. 

Each  mill’s  product  is  valued  by  the  buyers  on  its  past  output, 
and  a  lowering  of  grade  is  noticed  at  once  and  reflects  on  the  price 
offered  for  future  deliveries. 


142  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  finest  grades  are  produced  by  the  Hanclelsvereeniging  Am¬ 
sterdam’s  two  mills  at  Malang  and  Kediri,  under  the  mark  “  Boemi 
Ajoe  I”;  by  the  Apacar  &  Co.’s  mill  at  Kediri,  under  the  mark 
“  Galoean  XXX  ” ;  and  by  the  Chinese-owned  mill  at  Malang, 
under  the  mark  “  Krebet  Xo.  1.” 

CULTIVATION  AND  MILLING  OF  TAPIOCA. 

In  east  J ava  tapioca  is  cultivated  by  European  companies  operating 
large  estates  and  mills.  The  product  of  these  estates  is  very  much 
superior  to  that  produced  in  the  Preanger  Regencies.  The  following 
is  a  description  of  the  process  of  cultivation  and  manufacture  as 
seen  on  one  of  the  largest  tapioca  estates  in  Java  making  one  of  the 
standard  grades. 

Tapioca  is  planted  throughout  the  year.  Plowing  to  a  depth  of 
about  6  inches  is  done  with  a  native  plow  shod  with  an  iron  point 
or  with  a  two-handled  English  plow  of  light  iron  construction,  suited 
to  the  native  physique. 

Many  varieties  of  plants  are  cultivated,  selected  to  suit  the  quality 
of  the  soil.  Pieces  of  the  stalk  are  cut  about  10  inches  long  and 
planted  upright  in  rows  at  intervals  of  ~3  by  4  feet.  The  soil  is 
lightly  cultivated  until  the  plants  are  too  large  for  the  cattle  to 
walk  between  the  rows.  It  takes  from  11  to  13  months  for  tapioca 
to  mature  in  the  lowlands  of  Java,  and  the  planters  leave  it  from  2 
to  3  months  longer,  as  the  best  flour  is  made  from  roots  that  are 
overripe. 

When  the  roots  are  pulled  they  are  transported  by  carts  and  a 
light  railway  to  the  mill,  where  they  are  first  put  into  the  rasper, 
a  circular  grater  revolving  at  high  speed,  which  grinds  them  to  a 
powder.  After  leaving  the  rasper  the  product  is  carried  by  a 
stream  of  water  through  two  revolving  cylinders  of  about  5  feet  in 
diameter  by  15  feet  long  with  a  slight  downward  pitch.  The  first 
of  these  is  covered  with  brass  wire  screen  through  which  the  flour 
passes,  while  the  coarser  particles  pass  out  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
cylinder  and  are  carried  away  by  a  stream  of  water  to  the  refuse 
heap.  The  flour  then  is  separated  into  two  grades  by  passing  through 
a  cylinder  similar  to  the  first  but  covered  with  coarse  cotton  cloth 
and  goes  to  settling  tanks  as  Xo.  1  and  Xo.  2  flour.  The  success  of 
this  screening  process  depends  on  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  water. 

First-grade  flour  settles  in  about  four  hours,  while  the  second 
grade  takes  longer.  From  the  settling  tanks  the  first  grade  is  taken 
to  an  agitator  tank,  where  it  goes  through  a  washing  process,  and 
after  resettling  is  taken  to  the  drying  room,  which  is  kept  at  a  tem¬ 
perature  of  42°  C.  When  dry  it  falls  through  the  wire  tra}7s  on 
which  it  is  placed  and  is  taken  by  conveyors  to  the  flour  room,  where 
it  passes  through  a  silk  screen  and  is  then  ready  for  sacking. 

It  was  claimed  that  no  chemicals  were  used  except  ordinary  wash¬ 
ing  soda  for  cleaning  the  tanks. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


143 


EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  OF  TAPIOCA. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  from  Java  and  Madoera  of 
flour  tapioca  by  countries : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
4,497 
22, 372 
15, 056 
1,504 
190 

Metric  tons. 
227 
31,473 
7, 549 
58 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
20, 401 
44, 020 
16, 147 
3,016 
46 

Metric  tons. 
6,600 
30, 354 
18, 824 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

7,577 

France . 

Belgium . 

* . 

Canada . 

2,073 

236 

Other  European . 

168 

26 

6,020 
1,710 
1, 2S2 
369 
43 

96 

563 

292 

6,992 

1,602 

British  India . 

20 

4,984 

2,419 

181 

306 

452 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

Hongkong . 

Japan . 

7,093 

2,896 

476 

321 

109 

5,816 
2,781 
1, 132 
85 
92 

China . 

149 

146 

All  other . 

Total,  Java  and  Madoera . 

53,237 

50, 298 

19, 792 

93,374 

64, 140 

Java  and  Madoera  export  figures  for  flake  tapioca  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1, 036 
2, 210 
4, 734 
2, 134 
209 
82 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,055 
1,776 
5, 679 
>9, 479 

Metric  tons. 

412 

342 

2,446 

105 

365 

United  States . 

6, 236 
2, 770 
3, 540 

2,514 

Great  Britain . 

France . 

893 

Germany . 

Other  European . 

2 

45 

1,119 

10 

106 

108 

Australia . 

Japan . 

1 

460 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

77 

1,671 

86 

69 

129 

37 

55 

Hongkong . . . 

All  other . 

5 

Total,  Java  and  Madoera . 

10,  487 

13, 007 

4,797 

19, 815 

3,891 

Exports  of  pearl  tapioca  from  Java  and  Madoera  were  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918- 

1919 

1920 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  ions. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

151 

323 

1,  409 

United  States . . . 

58 

2, 751 

829 

1,  767 

862 

Great  Britain . 

414 

1, 129 

324 

3,449 

2,704 

France . 

91 

126 

306 

17 

Germany . 

38 

24 

Other  Enronean _ 

107 

2,613 

77 

Australia . 

587 

676 

1,  482 

Janan _ _ 

66 

1,  460 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

28 

325 

814 

580 

622 

Honekon? _  _ 

20 

84 

96 

68 

All  other ' _ 

370 

89 

Total . 

778 

4,  812 

3,  396 

11,  594 

7,354 

Brokers. — Exporters  buy  through  brokerage  houses,  some  of  which 
specialize  in  tapioca,  and  their  knowledge  of  the  qualities  enables 
them  to  render  a  valuable  service  to  the  trade. 


144  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  tapioca  into  the  Straits 
Settlements  for  1919  in  Singapore  dollars  ($0,567  at  mint  par  U.  S.)  : 


Countries  of  origin. 

Flake, 

Singapore. 

Pearl. 

Flour. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

Federated  Malay  States . 

Non-Federated  Malay  States . 

Java . 

S$103,  494 
1,  445,  077 
410,  423 
1,550 

S$131, 124 
321, 648 
357,  897 

S$l,  656 
654, 256 

S$2,  552 
4,128 
1, 108, 739 

S$18, 692 
387,  520 
35,  042 
3,  530 

All  other . 

36, 655 

Total . 

1,  960,  544 

810,  669 

692,  567 

1, 115,  419 

444, 784 

The  Non-Federated  Malay  States,  chiefly  Johore  and  Kedah,  pro¬ 
duced  56  per  cent  of  the  total  exports,  the  Federated  Malay  States 
5  per  cent,  and  39  per  cent  was  imported  from  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies. 

The  Malay  Peninsula  is  not  so  important  in  the  production  of 
tapioca  as  formerly.  Like  many  other  products,  tapioca  has  given 
away  to  rubber  culture  to  a  large  extent  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Formerly  there  was  a  large  production  in  the  country  tributary  to 
Muar,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  State  of  Johore,  in  Malacca,  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Penang.  To-day  there  is  a  remnant  of  the  once, 
extensive  culture  of  this  product  in  the  Muar  district  and  some  cul¬ 
tivation  on  a  large  scale  in  Kedah,  besides  a  small  native  cultivation 
throughout  the  peninsula.  The  quality  of  the  Johore  tapioca  is  su¬ 
perior  to  that  grown  in  other  parts  of  the  peninsula. 

Exports  of  tapioca  from  the  Straits  Settlements  for  1919  by  ports 
and  countries,  in  Straits  dollars,  were  as  follows: 


Countries  of  destination. 

Flake, 

Singapore. 

Pearl. 

Flour. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

United  States . 

S$74,912 

2,066,893 

10,365 

1,079 

SJ184.851 

1,186,735 

3,824 

S*l, 170^300 
3,548,300 
1, 488, 148 
45, 488 
10,311 

SS62, 632 
41,927 
194,370 

United  Kingdom . 

SS43,376 
255, 497 

British  India  and  Burma . 

Ceylon . 

Federated  Malay  States . 

1,016 

58,299 
14, 486 

19,996 

1,507 

Non-Federated  Malay  States . 

5,429 

2,040 

1,127 

11,250 

Canada . .* . 

46,869 
46,357 
33, 009 
8,030 
2,274 
3,498 
7,282 
75,558 
81,321 
14,280 
8,  S6S 

364,440 
433, 528 

Australia . 

6,017 

Union  of  South  Africa . 

New  Zealand . 

27,465 
92, 3S7 

Hongkong . 

223,336 

116,399 

Egypt . 

Belgium . 

7,846 
8,400 
180, 733 
28,560 
7,696 

7,500 

Denmark . . 

France . 

40,863 

Italy . 

N  etherlands . 

Norway . 

48, 700 
2,400 
3,622 

Sweden . 

China . 

1,200 

1,510 

26, 436 
19,963 
10,831 
3.625 
9,5S1 
11,220 
19,170 
37,869 
22, 569 

8,410 

Japan . 

French  Indo-China . 

22,780 

2,056 

41,973 

4,678 

Borneo . 

Java . 

Sumatra . 

15, 840 

5, 460 

Philippines . 

5,594 

64,794 

4,891 

Siam*.  *. . 

3,139 

306 

4,180 

25 

All  other . 

1,737 

Total . 

2,409,267 

1,847,370 

7,266,552 

803, 194 

454,850 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


145 


Great  Britain  took  85  per  cent  of  the  flake,  53  per  cent  of  the 
pearl,  and  7  per  cent  of  the  flour;  the  United  States  took  less  than 
one-half  per  cent  of  the  flake,  15  per  cent  of  the  pearl,  and  less  than 
one-half  per  cent  of  the  flour ;  continental  Europe  bought  consider¬ 
able  quantities  of  both  flake  and  pearl;  and  Hongkong  and  British 
India  and  Burma  were  the  principal  purchasers  of  flour. 

SAGO. 

The  larger  Dutch  ports  do  very  little  business  in  sago.  It  is  a 
product  of  fresh-water  swamps  or  wet  lands,  and  the  exports  are 
grown  in  eastern  Sumatra,  western  Borneo,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Riouw  Archipelago  lying  between  those  main  islands.  The  sago 
palm  grows  in  all  parts  of  the  colony  and  is  the  staple  food  product 
in  the  islands  lying  to  the  east  of  Celebes,  but,  as  the  supplies  avail¬ 
able  in  the  neighborhood  of  Singapore  are  sufficient  for  the  world’s 
demands,  little  of  the  products  of  the  eastern  islands  is  exported. 

Exports  of  sago  from  the  Netherlands  Indies  for  1913,  1915,  1918, 
and  1919  are  shown  below.  Practically  all  of  the  export  is  taken 
to  the  Singapore  refineries  in  small  Chinese-owned  steamers  or  in 
sailing  vessels. 


Countries. 

1913 

1915 

1918 

1919 

Raw. 

Refined. 

Raw. 

Refined. 

Raw., 

Refined. 

Raw. 

Refined. 

Netherlands . 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

560 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

10 

51 

99 

7,360 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

393 

3,805 

Singapore . 

Japan . 

9,122 

8,938 

6,953 

3,633 

108 

1 

13, 704 

11, 145 

All  other . 

Total . 

83 

14 

97 

462 

117 

10 

9,205 

4,772 

9,035 

7,520 

7,415 

3,742 

13,  821 

11, 155 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  raw  and  washed  sago 
into  the  Straits  Settlements  for  1919  in  Straits  dollars  ($0,567  at 
mint  par  U.  S.)  : 


Districts. 

Pearl, 

Singapore. 

Flour. 

Raw. 

Singapore. 

Labuan. 

Singapore. 

Labuan. 

British  North  Borneo . 

S$2, 400 

S$273, 610 

S$78,  512 
32,  097 
13,  595 

Brunei . 

S*l,  384 

Sarawak . 

3, 442, 132 
17,140 
157,  464 
4,536 
3,  870, 044 
8,000 
1,050 
494 

Hongkong . 

1,200 

6,940 

2,350 

722 

Non- Federated  Malay  States.*. . 

S$77, 564 

China . 

Dutch  possessions . 

459, 385 

Japan.*. . 

Siam . 

All  other . 

722 

Total . 

14,  334 

7, 774,  470 

124,  204 

536, 949 

1,384 

The  production  of  sago  on  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  negligible. 
Sarawak  and  the  Dutch  islands  lying  between  Borneo  and  Sumatra 


146  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

to  the  south  of  Singapore  (the  Riouw  Archipelago)  are  the  principal 
sources  of  imports.  Sarawak  sago  is  shipped  either  direct  to  Singa¬ 
pore  or  via  Labuan,  and  is  received  ready  for  export  as  flour.  Riouw 
sago  is  received  either  raw  or  in  a  partially  prepared  condition  and 
has  to  be  rewashed  before  being  exported  as  flour. 

Sago  is  collected  from  the  producers  through  the  Chinese  retailers 
in  the  districts  of  production  and  then  goes  to  the  larger  dealers  at 
the  ports,  who  consign  it  to  their  connections  in  Singapore.  Such 
sago  as  has  to  be  rewashed  for  export  is  sold  to  the  sago  millers,  some 
12  to  15  of  whom  were  operating  in  1921,  who  prepare  it  for  export 
either  as  flour  or  pearl  sago. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  sago  from  the  Straits 
Settlements  for  1919  in  Straits  dollars: 


Countries. 

Pearl,  all 
ports. 

Flour,  all 
ports. 

United  States . 

S$7,050 
733, 506 
89, 818 
25, 876 
9,022 
18,341 
1,428 
1, 105 
1,620 
44,017 
6,653 
2,089 
50,444 

S$201,691 
6, 146, 579 
1,028, 270 

United  Kingdom . 

British  India  and  Burma . 

Ceylon . 

Hongkong . 

44,471? 

Canada . 

Australia . 

18, 693 

Mauritius . 

Union  of  South  Africa . 

French  Indo-China . 

6,052 
32, 752 
1,288 
12,241 
221,476 
178, 703 
501,090 
1,086, 675 
215,618 
18, 480 
40,064 
107,451 
30, 836 

Netherlands  Indies . 

Philippines . 

Siam. . . 

Belgium . 

Denmark . 

France . 

Italy . 

Netherlands . 

Norway . 

Spain . . . 

Japan . 

All  other . 

350 

Total . 

991, 319 

9,892,431 

Of  the  total  exports  the  United  Kingdom  took  63  per  cent,  British 
India  and  Burma  10  per  cent,  and  the  United  States  less  than  2  per 
cent.  Continental  Europe  was  a  large  buyer  of  flour,  Italy  alone 
taking  11  per  cent  of  the  total  exports. 

QUININE  AND  CINCHONA  BARK. 

In  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  the  cultivation  of  the  cinchona  tree 
dates  from  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  home  of 
this  tree  is  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  but  the  supply  from  those  countries 
was  so  uncertain  and  the  importance  of  the  product  so  great  that 
experiments  in  its  cultivation  were  made  in  Algeria  by  the  French, 
in  British  India,  and  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  In  Algeria 
the  experiments  were  a  failure  and  those  in  British  India  met  with 
only  indifferent  success,  but  in  this  colony  the  soil  and  climatic  con¬ 
ditions  were  found  to  be  very  favorable  at  altitudes  of  from  5,000 
to  6.000  feet  in  western  Java. 

Cultivation. — The  young  plants  are  raised  from  seeds  of  proven 
“mother”  trees.  When  6  months  old  they  are  transferred  to  other 
nursery  beds,  and  in  another  2  months  are  again  transferred.  They 
remain  in  these  latter  beds  until  they  are  from  2  to  3  feet  high,  when 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


147 


they  are  finally  planted  in  the  gardens,  a  term  applied  in  this  colony 
to  cultivated  plots.  Owing' to  the  steepness  of  the  hills  at  these  high 
altitudes  and  to  the  heavy  rains,  the  land  is  terraced  to  aid  in  plant¬ 
ing  and  to  retard  the  erosion  of  the  soil.  There  is  also  a  system 
of  multiplication  by  grafting  which  is  preferable,  as  it  better  pre¬ 
serves  the  type,  but  even  this  does  not  always  secure  the  indentical 
chemical  constitution  of  the  bark,  owing  to  the  varying  influences 
of  the  soil  conditions. 

Harvesting. — At  the  present  time  the  following  method  of  harvest¬ 
ing  is  generally  in  use:  Either  parts  of  the  plantation  containing 
trees  of  from  3  to  4  }7ears  old  are  cut  down,  replanting  taking  place 
immediately,  or  on  older  plantations  a  thinning-out  process  is  fol¬ 
lowed.  The  harvesting  of  the  bark  differs  according  to  whether  it  is 
to  be  used  for  pharmaceutical  purposes  or  for  the  manufacture  of 
quinine.  In  the  first  instance  a  ring  of  bark  is  removed  near  the 
base  of  the  stem,  and  after  felling  the  tree  the  bark  is  taken  off  in 
pieces  of  from  10  to  40  inches  in  length  and  10  inches  in  wddth,  care 
being  taken  not  to  disturb  the  moss  with  which  it  is  covered,  as  this 
gives  it  a  higher  commercial  value.  When  it  is  not  necessary  to 
preserve  the  moss  the  bark  is  beaten  with  a  mallet,  by  which  process 
it  is  freed  from  the  stem.  The  cylinders  of  bark  are  dried  for  a  time 
on  poles  in  a  shady  spot,  after  which  they  are  put  in  the  sun  and 
finished  in  a  drying  room  at  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  Great  care 
is  necessary  in  drying  in  order  to  retain  the  silvery  white  color 
desired  by  the  trade.  This  grade  is  sold  as  “  pipe  bark,”  and  that 
which  is  taken  from  the  roots  and  branches  is  known  as  “  broken 
bark.” 

When  harvested  for  manufacturing  purposes  the  bark  is  removed 
from  the  stem,  branches,  and  roots  by  beating  it  with  a  mallet. 

Grades. — The  trade  recognizes  the  following  grades:  Stem  bark 
pipes,  first  and  second  quality;  damaged  pipes;  broken  pipes  and 
chips.  Pipes  are  packed  in  cases  and  the  other  grades  in  bags. 

Number  of  plantations. — The  total  number  of  private  cinchona 
plantations  in  the  colony  in  1919  was  131,  of  which  5  were  in  Su¬ 
matra  and  the  balance  in  Java,  mostly  in  the  Preanger  Regencies. 
The  total  area  in  that  year  in  hectares  was  as  follows  (1  hec- 
tare=2.471  acres)  : 


Items. 

Area 

planted. 

^.rea  in  pro¬ 
duction. 

Planted  alone . 

Hectares. 

4, 768. 4 
7,070.4 
617.7 
642.2 
951.9 

Hectares. 
4,047.2 
4, 454. 3 

609.1 

445.2 
665.0 

Planted  with  one  other  culture . 

Planted  with  two  other  cultures . 

Planted  with  three  other  cultures . 

Planted  with  other  cultures,  mixed . 

Total . 

14,050.6 

11,220.8 

Besides  the  above  areas  there  are  large  Government-owned  plan¬ 
tations. 

19878° — 23 - 11 


148  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


SELLING  METHODS. 


Auctions  for  cinchona  bark,  held  in  Amsterdam,  show  the  follow¬ 
ing  results : 


Year. 

Quantity  of  bark 
offered. 

Average 
per  cent  of 
quinine 
sulphate. 

Quantity  of  bark  sold. 

Average 
unit1  of  the 
factory 
barks 
officially 
sold. 

Kilos  of 
bark 
offered. 

Containing 
kilos  of 
quinine 
sulphate. 

Kilos  of 
bark. 

Containing 
kilos  of 
quinine  - 
sulphate. 

1910 . 

8,  841,  753 

532, 230 

6. 38 

8, 573, 912 

516, 639 

3. 15 

1911 . 

9, 139, 662 

569,  954 

6.59 

8,  325, 365 

518, 624 

3.11 

1912 . 

10,  078,  950 

608,  051 

6. 33 

6, 635,  401 

398, 535 

3.81 

1913 . 

12,  600, 218 

741,  066 

6. 12 

7, 671, 050 

449,  673 

4. 91 

1914 . 

9,  994,  948 

576,  596 

6. 03 

7, 375,  874 

418,  739 

6.20 

1915 . 

10, 609,  610 

635,  296 

6.25 

6, 902,  427 

408, 691 

6.20 

1916 . 

10,  932,  364 

632, 670 

6. 17 

8, 101,  351 

493,  766 

11.40 

1917 . 

8,  359,  764 

491,  096 

6.17 

5,  821, 250 

353,  251 

1918 . 

36,  585 

i;364 

4.80 

34:902 

1'  306 

1919 . 

181'  044 

7;  289 

5.81 

177,434 

7,131 

1  The  unit  is  the  amount  of  cents  (Netherlands  currency)  paid  per  cent  quinine  sulphate  and  per  half 
kilo  of  bark.  (The  Division  of  Commerce  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Industry,  and  Commerce 
states  that  “  owing  to  circumstances  the  average  unit  for  the  years  1917-1919  can  not  be  given.”) 


Sale. — Until  July,  1913,  cinchona  bark  was  sold  by  public  auction 
in  Amsterdam,  but,  as  the  war  disturbed  the  supply  and  demand  and 
prices  fell,  the  producers  held  a  conference  with  the  buyers,  “  about 
eight  quinine  factories,”  which  resulted  in  a  combination  whereby 
the  factories  bound  themselves  to  take  up  the  Java  production  to  a 
guaranteed  quantity  of  bark  containing  525  tons  of  quinine  sulphate 
at  a  minimum  price  of  5  cents  (Netherlands  currency)  per  unit,  the 
manufacturers  to  apply  at  Amsterdam  ten  times  a  year  for  the 
quantity  of  bark  each  of  them  desires  to  receive.  A  “  control  office  ” 
controls  the  receipts,  analyses,  and  deliveries  of  bark  and  fixes  the 
quotations. 

Factory  in  Java. — The  Bandongsche  Kinniefabriek  at  Bandoeng, 
Java,  is  the  only  manufacturer  of  quinine  in  the  Netherlands  Indies. 
The  quantities  of  quinine  sulphate  exported  from  the  colony  all 
came  from  this  factory.  The  following  figures  show  the  total  exports 
of  quinine  from  Java  since  1910  (kilo=2.204  pounds)  : 


1910.. . 

1911. . 

1912. . 

1913.  . 

1914.  . 

1915.  . 


Kilos. 


Kilos. 


118,  731 
100,  459 
74,  510 
72,  507 
61,  964 
82,  868 


1916  . 

1917  . 

1918  . 

1919  . 

1920  . 

1921  (9  months) 


115, 175 
129,  890 
252,  626 
640,  283 
*418,  861 
1  389,  000 


The  exports  of  quinine  and  cinchona  bark  from  Java,  by  countries, 
for  the  years  1913,  1916,  and  1918  to  1921  were  as  follows : 


1  Taken  from  the  monthly  returns  of  Java  and  Madoera. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


149 


[In  metric  tons.] 


Countries. 

1913 

1916 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

(9  months 
only). 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Qui¬ 

nine. 

Bark. 

Netherlands . 

37 

7, 829 

29 

8,225 

202 

679 

20 

3,350 

146 

2,807 

United  States . 

3 

3 

41 

1, 156 

66 

J,  743 

31 

10 

Great  Britain . 

262 

51 

744 

163 

2, 313 

102 

643 

13 

518 

Italy . 

15 

7 

1 

1 

37 

16 

21 

33 

Belgium . 

36 

. 

Greece . 

i 

14 

6 

18 

13 

South  America . 

i 

7 

3 

Egypt . 

10 

125 

8 

British  South  Afiica . 

2 

British  India . 

5 

6 

60 

18 

74 

223 

55 

39 

161 

168 

Singapore . 

11 

24 

107 

6 

4 

1 

Siam . 

1 

1 

1 

2 

French  lndo-China . 

1 

2 

2 

Hongkong . 

2 

2 

3 

1 

Japan. . .  T. . 

14 

33 

29 

415 

45 

409 

18 

562 

Philippines . 

8 

6 

7 

2 

473 

Australia . 

3 

4 

11 

8 

China . 

10 

10 

8 

11 

All  other . . . 

2 

14 

43 

2 

1 

\7 

Total . 

72 

8,127 

115 

8,258 

253 

2,440 

640 

5,404 

418 

4,526 

389 

4, 072 

FIBERS. 

KAPOK. 

The  following  extract  is  from  the  Exporters’  Directory  and  is  an 
official  statement  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  Government  relating  to 
kapok  and  its  uses: 

The  kapok  tree  (belonging  to  the  family  Bombacete)  is  to  be  found  through¬ 
out  the  ^Netherlands  East  Indies,  but  principally  in  Java,  which  island  is  respon¬ 
sible  for  about  seven-eighths  of  the  total  export  of  kapok  from  the  whole 
archipelago. 

Java  kapok,  the  well-known  vegetable  dowrn  (also  named  tree  cotton),  is  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  fruits  of  the  Ceiba  pentranda,  L.  ( Eridendron  anfractuosum, 
I).  C.),  and  is  superior  to  the  product  from  other  origins. 

Although  the  greatest  part  of  the  cultivation  of  this  tree  is  native  owned, 
there  are  a  number  of  estates  under  European  management  interested  in  it.  On 
these  estates  the  kapok  tree  is  most  largely  interplanted  with  cacao  and  coffee. 

After  the  pods  have  been  harvested  the  contents  are  thoroughly  dried  and 
afterwards  separated  from  the  seeds.  When  ready  for  export  the  product  is 
usually  marked  with  the  district  of  origin. 

The  chamber  of  commerce  at  Semarang  annually  fixes  standard  samples  of 
superior  Java  kapok,  first  quality  Java  kapok,  and  fair  average  Java  kapok.' 

Kapok  is  put  to  many  uses.  It  is  extremely  suitable  for  stuffing  of  mat¬ 
tresses,  life  belts,  bandages,  etc.,  but  it  is  also  employed  for  spinning  purposes, 
in  the  manufacture  of  felt  hats,  and  in  guncotton  factories. 

The  following  extract,  also  relating  to  kapok,  is  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  official  brochure,  published  for  distribution  at  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition : 

The  kapok  tree  requires  very  little  care  and  thrives  well  when  planted  in  any 
soil;  *  *  *  the  common  method  of  propagating  is  by  setting  out  cuttings 

from  the  older  trees.  *  *  *  The  kapok  trade  in  Java  is  almost  entirely  in 

the  hands  of  European  exporters  In  the  principal  ports.  *  *  *  Kapok  is 

also  sold  and  shipped  directly  to  foreign  purchasers  by  European  planters,  but 
this  represents  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  total  exports.  *  *  * 


150  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


A  single  mattress  of  3  by  6J  feet  requires:  Java  kapok,  17.6  to  19.8  pounds; 
horsehair,  26.4  to  28.6  pounds ;  seaweed,  33  to  35.2  pounds ;  crin  vegetal,  26.4  to 
28.6  pounds ;  wood  shavings,  33  to  38  pounds ;  alpine  grass,  25.4  to  28.6  pounds ; 
straw,  28.6  to  82  pounds. 

Kapok  absorbs  very  little  moisture,  owing  to  which  a  mattress  stuffed  with 
this  material  when  it  becomes  damp  is  soon  dried,  while  the  covering  stands 
less  chance  of  rotting  away.  *  *  *  Java  kapok,  having  great  buoyancy, 

can  carry  twenty  to  thirty  times  its  own  weight  in  the  water. 

Grades. — The  Soerabaya  Handelsvereenigin^  recognizes  the  fol¬ 
lowing  broad  descriptions:  Good  clean  prime  Madoera ;  good  clean 
prime  Porrong;  good  clean  prime  East  Java,  fair  average  quality 
of  the  crop.  Within  these  descriptions  are  Japara  and  Siloewak 
Sawangan,  and  they  are  further  divided  as  to  quality  and  freedom 
from  foreign  matter  as  follows : 

First  contract. — Fancy  grade,  with  a  maximum  of  \\  per  cent  of 
seeds  and  dirt. 

Second  contract. — A  good  marketable  quality,  with  a  maximum  of 
5  per  cent  of  seeds  and  dirt. 

Third  contract. — Lowest  quality,  with  a  maximum  of  6  per  cent 
of  seeds  and  dirt. 

There  are  134  estates  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  in  central  and  eastern  Java,  producing  some  kapok. 
Some  of  these  estates  in  the  neighborhood  of  Semarang  produce  a 
very  fine  quality,  while  others  produce  inferior  qualities.  Their 
product  is  known  in  the  Semarang  and  Soerabaya  markets  and  is 
bought  on  the  “  estate  mark.” 

Exporters  state  that  America  requires  first  qualities  only,  while 
medium  grades  go  to  Europe  and  the  lowest  to  Australia. 

EXPORTS  OF  KAPOK. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  exports  of  kapok,  by  coun¬ 
tries,  from  the  Netherlands  Indies: 


Countries. 


Netherlands . 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

France . 

Italy . 

Scandinavia . 

Other  European . 

Singapore  and  Penang. 

Hongkong . . 

Australia . 

New  Zealand . 

Japan . 

China . 

Philippines . 

All  other . 


Total. 


Exports  from: 

Java  and  Madoera. 
Outer  Possessions. 


For  the  whole  colony. 


1913 


Metric  tons. 
5, 028 
1,377 
25 
10 
208 
42 
19 
23 
6S0 


2,110 

617 


10, 145 


9,017 

1,128 


1917 


Metric  tons. 
125 
5,690 
1,519 


40 


21 


1,094 


2,537 

508 

61 

8 

335 

1 


11,939 


11,690 

249 


1918 


Metric  tons. 
50 
4,440 
34 


31 


406 

9 

2, 509 
757 
88 
16 
632 
56 


9, 031 


8, 844 
187 


1919 


Metric  tons. 
3, 569 
9, 110 
1,165 


176 


58 

115 
1, 3S5 


1,688 

61 

147 


54 


17,528 


Java  and  Madoera  only. 


1920 


Metric  tons. 
2, 528 
5, 545 
183 
'  33 

95 


17, 082 
446 


34 

268 


3,415 

*"'34' 


70 


12, 205 


1921 

(9  months). 


Metric  tons. 
2, 996 
7,071 
81 


68 


235 

i,034 


183 

54 


11, 722 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


151 


The  bulk  of  the  exports  of  kapok  is  shipped  from  the  ports  of 
Semarang  and  Soerabaya,  shipments  from  the  former  port  totaling 
4,081  metric  tons  in  1913  and  5,686  tons  in  1918,  while  from  the  lat¬ 
ter  port  were  shipped  3,580  metric  tons  in  1913  and  2,950  tons  in 
1918. 


KAPOK  CROP  SEASONS  AND  PRINCIPAL  PRODUCING  DISTRICTS. 

Picking  begins  in  August^September  and  finishes  in  February- 
March  of  the  following  year.  The  first  of  the  new  kapok  crop 
reaches  the  market  early  in  December  in  normal  years.  An  estimate 
made  by  a  prominent' exporter  for  the  crop  of  1919-20  divided  the 
production  as  follows:  Mid-Java  estates,  15,000  piculs,  and  native, 
95,000  piculs;  east  Java  estates,  5,000  piculs,  and  native,  50,000 
piculs. 

Preparation  and  packing. — Most  of  the  native  kapok  crop  is 
bought  in  the  pods  from  the  natives  by  the  Chinese,  who  prepare  it 
for  the  market.  After  being  taken  from  the  pods  the  fiber  is  beaten 
with  bamboo  sticks  until  it  is  thoroughly  ginned.  Some  machines  are 
used,  but  they  have  not  been  entirely  a  success,  as  it  is  claimed 
that  the  staple  is  broken  in  the  process. 

Before  the  war  kapok  was  pressed  by  hand,  about  2^  piculs 
(340  pounds)  to  the  cubic  meter,  but  the  high  freight  rates  brought 
about  power  pressing,  with  4rJ  piculs  (612  pounds)  to  the  cubic 
meter.  American  buyers  at  first  objected  to  this  heavy  pressing, 
but  later  their  objections  were  withdrawn. 

Marketing  of  kapoks — Theoretically,  kapok  goes  from  the: 
Chinese  miller  to  the  exporter,  but  in  fact  it  is  handled  very  largely 
by  brokers  in  the  speculator  market,  going  into  warehouse  in  Sem¬ 
arang  or  Soerabaya,  the  warehouse  receipt  often  changing  hands 
many  times. 

There  has  been  a  good  demand  from  America,  Europe,  and  Aus¬ 
tralia  for  many  years,  and  apparently  the  product  is  being  appreci¬ 
ated  by  manufacturers.  A  considerable  extension  of  production  is 
possible  with  slight  outlay  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  natives. 

AGREEMENT  USED  ON  SOERABAYA  KAPOK  MARKET. 

The  following  agreement  is  used  in  the  transfer  of  kapok  on  the 
Soerabaya  market  under  the  ruling  of  the  Soerabayach  Handels- 
vereeniging  (Merchants’  Association)  : 

Dear  Sir:  I  beg  to  confirm  that  I  have  bought  from _ 

and  sold  to _ 

-  bales/piculs 

Well-refined  Prima  Madoera _ 

Well-refined  Prima  Porrong _ 

Well-refined  Prima  East  Java  F.  A.  Q _ out  of  crop 

19 _ on  the  following  conditions : 

1.  Price  and  payment. — The  price  is  fixed  on _ per  picul  net.  Payments 

cash  after  weighing  each  transport  (consignment,  lot). 

2.  Delivery. — The  delivery  to  take  place  during  the  month  of _ , 

19 _ ,  at  seller’s  option.  The  seller  will  be  considered  in  default  by  failure 

of  delivery  within  the  time  (term)  fixed. 

3.  Packing. — Packing  to  consist  of  strong  frails  (mats)  used  in  export 
packing. 

4.  Tare. — Tare  to  be  estimated  at  4  Amsterdam  pounds  for  mats,  increased 
by  the  weight  of  bands  (Rattanbandsche). 


152  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


5.  Adjustments. — For  kapok  not  corresponding  to  the  stipulations  of  this 
contract,  arbitration  can  be  applied  for,  to  be  held  by  the  commission  men¬ 
tioned  (clause  8),  which  commission  will  fix  the  indemnity  to  be  paid.  If  this 
indemnity  exceeds  1.50  florins  per  picul,  the  buyer  has  a  right  to  refuse  the  lot 
and  the  seller  is  obliged  to  replace  same. 

6.  Testing. — The  buyer  is  obliged  to  start  weighing  and  testing  as  soon  as 
possible,  at  the  latest  two  days  after  receiving.  The  seller  is  obliged  to  remove 
disapproved  lots  from  buyer’s  stores  as  soon  as  possible,  i.  e.,  at  the  latest 
three  clays  after  the  disapproval. 

7.  Risk. — From  the  moment  of  delivery  the  goods  are  for  account  and  risk  of 
buyer,  even  if  not  yet  paid  for.  The  fire  risk  is  for  account  of  buyer  from  the 
moment  of  moving  into  his  stores.  Should  seller  fail  to  remove  disapproved 
lots  from  buyer’s  store  within  the  time  fixed  in  clause  6,  then  the  fire  risk  will 
be  for  account  of  seller;  after  expiration  of  that  time,  to  be  counted  from  the 
moment  of  disapproval. 

8.  In  case  of  any  disputes  arising  as  to  quality  (and  for  pressing  which  can 
not  be  settled  amicably,  as  well  as  the  indemnity  to  be  fixed  in  view  of  the 
above),  parties  bind  themselves  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  commission 
for  arbitration  of  kapok  business,  appointed  by  the  managing  board  of  the 
“  Trading  Society  ”  at  Soerabaya.  Said  commission  will  pronounce  the  final 
judgment  according  to  the  “  Regulations  for  Arbitration  in  Kapok  Business  ” 
stipulated  by  the  managing  board  referred  to. 

Parties  bind  themselves  to  be  subject  to  this  judgment  unconditionally  as 
pronounced  in  highest  resort  and,  with  regard  to  eventual  arbitration,  to  con 
form  themselves  to  the  stipulations  of  aforesaid  regulations. 

In  case  of  doubt  as  to  how  the  stipulations  read  on  the  date  of  this  contract, 
same  will  be  made  only  by  a  copy  of  these  stipulations  to  be  issued  by  the 
secretary  of  the  Trading  Society  at  Soerabaya. 

Thus  agreed  upon  in  good  faith  by  parties  at  Soerabaya. 

_ _  19 _ 


Broker. 


Following  are  the  regulations  for  arbitration  in  the  kapok 
business : 


Article  1. 


1.  The  arbitration  commission  is  to  be  appointed  by  the  managing  board 
of  the  Trading  Society  (Merchants’  Association)  at  Soerabaya  from  the  mem¬ 
bers  and  persons  holding  a  proxy  from  one  of  the  members. 

2.  The  commission  consists  of  three  members  and  as  many  substituting  mem¬ 
bers  as  will  be  thought  necessary  by  the  managing  board  of  the  Trading 
Society. 

3.  The  secretary  of  the  commission  will  be  the  secretary  of  the  Trading 
Society,  to  whom  all  letters,  documents,  and  money  destined  for  the  commission 
must  be  addressed. 

Article  2. 

1.  The  commission  delivers  judgment  only  in  those  cases  concerning  disputes 
about  quality  and  of  pressing. 

2.  If  any  buyer  or  seller  applies  for  arbitration  about  quality  and  for  press¬ 
ing  of  kapok,  he  has  to  give  notice  to  the  secretary  of  the  commission  and 
must  state  the  seller’s  name,  the  size  of  the  lot  in  question,  and  where  same 
can  be  examined. 

3.  The  secretary  requests  the  buyer  to  indicate  some  bales  of  the  lot  not 
yet  opened,  without  delay,  and  to  take  these  to  some  store  to  be  indicated  by 
the  secretary. 

4.  For  a  lot  not  exceeding  100  bales  the  number  of  bales  to  be  indicated  by 
the  buyer  will  be  at  least  5  and  at  most  10  at  his  option ;  for  a  lot  from  100 
to  300  bales,  at  least  10  and  at  most  20;  for  bigger  lots,  at  least  3  per  cent 
and  at  most  G  per  cent  of  the  number  of  bales,  rounded  off  upward. 

5.  The  arbitration  will  take  place  in  such  a  way  that  the  names  of  the 
parties  will  not  be  known  to  the  arbitrators;  in  view  of  this  the  secretary  will 
remove  or  cover  the  markings. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


153 


Abticle  3. 

1.  As  soon  as  the  bales  to  be  examined  have  arrived  at  the  place  of  destina¬ 
tion  (to  be  indicated  by  the  secretary)  the  secretary  shall  give  notice  to  the 
members  and  substituting  members  of  the  commission  who  will  have  to  decide 
in  the  dispute,  and  fixes  with  them  the  hour  of  meeting  and  testing. 

2.  If  one  of  the  members  of  the  commission  is  or  mighL  be  interested  in 
the  decision  of  the  dispute  or  if  one  of  them  might  be  prevented  from  attending 
the  secretary  has  to  appoint  so  many  substitute  members  as  will  be  necessary 
to  make  the  number  of  arbitrators  three. 


Article  4. 

1.  In  case  of  dispute  about  quality  the  arbitrators  will  have  to  judge  only 
whether  the  quality  corresponds  to  the  following  definitions:  (1)  Well-refined 
prima  Madura,  or  (2)  well-refined  prima  Porrong,  or  (3)  well- refined  prima 
East  Java  F.  4-  Q- 

2.  In  case  of  inferior  quality,  arbitrators  fix  the  indemnity  to  be  paid  by  the 
seller  to  the  buyer. 

3.  If  the  indemnity  exceeds  1.50  florins  per  picul,  the  seller  has  a  right  to 
take  back  the  lot  offered  and  the  buyer  has  a  right  to  refuse  it.  In  either 
case  the  seller  is  obliged  to  replace  same. 

*  i  ’  •  y  i  \  l 

Article  5. 

1.  The  dost  of  arbitration  is  chargeable  to  the  party  declared  in  fault  and 
amounts  to  75  florins,  which  will  be  equally  divided  amongst  the  arbitrators. 

2.  Over  and  above  these  costs  the  charges  incurred  for  transporting  the  bales 
referred  to  in  art.  2,  par.  3)  and  other  expenses  necessarily  incurred  for  the 
arbitration  will  be  put  to  the  account  of  the  party  in  failure. 

Article  6. 

1.  The  fulfilling  of  these  stipulations  by  parties  or  by  the  secretary  will  have 
to  be  commenced  within  48  hours  after  the  statement  referred  to  in  the  second 
paragraph  of  article  2  or  the  actions  following  thereafter. 

2.  Within  4  X  24  hours  (4  days,  exclusive  of  Sundays  or  other  days  on  which 
the  office  of  the  Trading  Society  is  closed)  after  the  hour  of  meeting  of  arbi¬ 
trators  the  result  of  the  arbitration  will  have  to  be  submitted  in  writing  to  the 
office  of  the  Trading  Society. 

3.  The  secretary  of  the  commission  will  hand  a  copy  of  same  to  both  parties,  if 
desired. 

There  is  practically  no  trade  in  kapok  in  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  no  production  of  consequence. 

COTTON. 

There  has  been  some  production  of  cotton  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  since  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is  cultivated  exclu¬ 
sively  by  natives  in  the  Palembang  Residency  of  Sumatra,  in  central 
Java,  in  Bali  and  Lombok,  and  in  the  Celebes.  The  Palembang 
product  goes  largely  to  Singapore,  while  that  of  the  other  districts 
is  sent  to  Java  for  export.  Japan  takes  the  larger  part,  but  some 
small  quantities  of  the  cleaned  product  go  to  Europe. 


154  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Exports  of  cotton  for  the  colony  during  the  period  1917-1920,  by 
countries,  were  as  follows : 


Countries. 

1917 

1913 

1919 

1920 

%  Raw. 

Cleaned. 

Raw. 

Cleaned. 

Raw. 

Cleaned. 

Raw. 

Cleaned. 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Netherlands . 

81 

1 

Singapore . 

22 

42 

Japan . 

626 

252 

1,471 

599 

379 

134 

581 

18 

All  other . 

9 

29 

70 

3 

11 

33 

61 

Total . 

657 

323 

1,  471 

669 

382 

226 

614 

80 

SISAL,  CANTILLA,  AND  MANILA  HEMP.  . 

Most  of  the  plantations  cultivating  fibers  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
are  in  Java,  the  only  exception  being  a  company  in  the  Lampong 
Residency  of  Sumatra  growing  manila  hemp  (abaca)  which  it  manu¬ 
factures  into  rope. 

In  Java  there  were  10,178  hectares  (25,150  acres)  planted  in  1919, 
of  which  7,979  hectares  (19,716  acres)  were  producing.  Of  this 
area  approximately  72  per  cent  was  in  sisal,  all  of  the  remainder,  ex¬ 
cept  about  200  acres  in  manila  hemp  in  Sumatra,  being  in  cantilla 
fiber.  The  cultivation  of  cantilla  fiber  was  confined  chiefly  to  the 
Principality  of  Soerakarta  and  of  sisal  to  the  Residencies  of  Ivediri 
and  Pasoeroean. 

Cultivation  of  sisal. — In  Java  the  cultivation  of  sisal  is  compara¬ 
tively  simple.  It  is  generally  planted  on  land  that  is  not  suited  to 
rubber,  on  which  coffee  or  some  other  crop  has  previously  been 
planted,  or  on  land  not  fit  for  any  other  culture.  In  some  districts 
“  lamtoro  ”  is  planted  between  the  rows.  This  plant  provides  the 
additional  nitrogen  that  the  sisal  requires.  Every  new  planting 
is  done  in  soil  on  which  the  lamtoro  was  previously  grown. 

Young  plants  are  raised  in  nurseries,  where  they  stay  until  1J  to 
2  years  old,  when  they  are  transferred  to  the  field,  usually  from 
October  to  January.  Planting  is  done  in  rows  12  feet  apart,  the 
distance  between  plants  being  3  feet.  The  soil  is  kept  as  free  from 
weeds  as  possible  within  a  reasonable  cost  during  the  first  three  }^ears, 
and  during  the  same  period  the  soil  between  the  lamtoro  and  sisal  is 
deeply  hoed.  The  plants  are  constantly  casting  leaves  throughout 
their  growth,  and  during  the  growing  period  these  are  cut  away  and 
hoed  under. 

Harvesting  of  sisal. — When  the  plants  are  2  years  old  the  mature 
leaves  are  about  24  inches  long  and  harvesting  begins  and  continues 
until  the  plant  blossoms,  when  it  is  6  years  old.  When  the  lower 
leaves  reach  an  angle  of  45°  from  the  ground  they  are  cut  by  the 
natives  with  the  “arit”  (a  knife)  and  carried  to  the  light  railway, 
where  they  are  loaded  on  cars  and  conveyed  to  the  factory. 

Manufacturing  and  packing  of  sisal. — Several  makes  of  stripping 
machines  are  in  use.  The  heavier  work  of  feeding  and  offcarrving 
is  done  by  men  and  the  lighter  work  by  women.  Erom  the  machines 
the  fiber  is  taken  to  the  drying  racks  in  a  field  reserved  for  that 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


155 


purpose,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  sun  for  from  one  to  two  days, 
after  which  it  is  sorted  by  women  and  baled  in  hand  presses. 

Packing ,  grades,  and  selling  conditions. — Sisal  and  cantilla  fibers 
are  packed  m  100-kilo  bales  without  burlap  or  other  covering  and 
bound  with  iron  hoops.  Bales  are  pressed  so  that  there  will  be  from 
7  to  8  piculs  (952  to  1,088  pounds)  to  the  cubic  meter. 

There  is  no  fixed  standard  of  quality,  and  buying  on  the  open 
L_arket  requires  an  expert  knowledge  not  only  of  the  requirements 
of  the  manufacturers  lout  of  the  qualities  coming  from  the  various 
estates.  Brokers  state  that  it  is  impossible  to  fill  firm  orders  to  the 
satisfaction  of  buyers  abroad,  as  a  guaranty  of  quality  is  impossible. 

Some  of  the  “uultuur  companies”  doing  an  export  business  have 
established  their  marks  on  the  American  and  European  markets. 

PRODUCTION  AND  COSTS  OF  SISAL  ON  AN  ESTATE  IN  EAST  JAVA. 

Production  figures  and  costs  of  sisal  from  the  clearing  of  the  land 
until  delivery  at  the  station  were  given  by  an  estate  in  east  Java, 
which  may  be  said  to  be  fairly  representative  of  those  of  other 
estates.  This  estate  is  particularly  well  organized  and  the  costs 
are  probably  as  low  as  any  in  Java. 

Production. — Following  are  the  production  figures  of  the  estate 
under  review  (1  picul=136  pounds;  1  bouw=1.7537  acres)  : 


Items. 

Piculs  to 
bouw. 

Fiber. 

First  Year  of  harvesting,  from  2  to  3  years  old . 

5 

2  per  cent. 

[Average  for  period,  3 i 

Second  vear,  from  3  to  4  vears . 

20 

Third  year,  from  4  to  5  vears . 

40 

Fourth  year,  from  5  to  6  years . 

25 

(  per  cent. 

The  six  years  of  growing,  or  four  years  of  harvesting,  produce  90 
piculs  per  bouw,  an  average  of  15  piculs  for  each  year. 

Costs. — The  cycle  of  planting  is  24  years,  which  covers  four  plant¬ 
ings,  averaging,  under  present  labor  costs  (April,  1920),  62.50  florins 
per  bouw  for  each  planting. 

Florins. 

Planting  per  bouw -  62.  50 

Upkeep  for  first  3  years,  including  weeding  and  hoeing,  at  40  florins 

per  year - 120.  00 

Upkeep  for  second  3  years,  at  20  florins  per  year _  60.  00 


Six  years’  cost -  242.  50 


Cultivating  cost  per  bouw  per  year _ _ _  40.  40 

Harvesting  and  manufacturing  charge  for  15  piculs  (the  average  pro¬ 
duction  per  bouw)  is  estimated  at  6  florins  per  picul _  90.00 


Annual  cost  of  planting  and  harvesting  1  bouw  of  land  produc¬ 
ing  15  piculs  of  sisal  per  year _ 130.  40 

Per  picul  cost  of  cultivation  and  harvesting _  8.  70 

In  1919  the  costs  of  harvesting  and  manufacture  were  high,  due  to 
the  fact  that  all  the  fields  were  in  young  sisal.  In  that  year  the  costs 
were  as  follows : 

Florins. 


Cutting  and  transportation  per  picul _ 2. 14 

Manufacturing  and  drying _ 1.  03 

Cleaning  and  making  bundles _ _  .  22 

Pressing  and  packing _ _ _ 1.  89 

Repairs  to  machinery _ 1. 18 


156  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Florins. 


Oil  and  fuel - 0.  64 

Upkeep  of  motor _  .  26 

Transport  from  estate  to  railway  station _  .07 


Cost  per  picul  in  1919 _ 7.  43 

Cost  per  picul  in  1918  (fourth  year  of  harvesting  and  fifth  of  grow¬ 
ing)  _ 5.  09 

Cost  per  picul  in  1917  (third  year  of  harvesting  and  fifth  of  grow¬ 
ing)  _ 4.  22 


There  are  no  fibers  grown  in  British  Malaya  on  a  large  enough 
scale  for  export.  Some  experiments  are  being  made  in  a  small  way 
by  the  Federated  Malay  States  Government  in  the  cultivation  of 
manila  hemp  and  cantilla  and  other  fibers,  but  none  of  them  have 
been  put  into  cultivation  by  private  planters. 

COIR. 

While  there  is  a  very  large  quantity  of  coconuts  produced  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  there  is  no  production  of  coir.  For  a  time 
there  was  a  small  native  production  at  Bandjermasin,  Borneo,  which 
was  sold  throughout  Java,  but  the  Java  trade  has  been  discontinued. 
There  has  been  no  foreign  trade  in  the  product,  and  advices  from  the 
Merchants’  Association  of  Batavia  and  Soerabaya  indicate  that  there 
is  no  interest  in  a  possible  trade  in  this  product. 

No  coir  is  made  in  British  Malaya  in  exportable  quantities,  nor  are 
there  factories  for  making  rope  or  other  commodities  from  coir. 
There  is  a  considerable  import  of  coir  rope  from  British  India  and 
Ceylon,  amounting  to  14,079  and  10,261  piculs,  respectively,  in  1919 
(1  picul=133-J  pounds). 

This  is  sold  to  the  native  and  Chinese  mariners  and  is  reexported 
to  surrounding  countries.. 

SPICES. 


Spices  produced  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  pepper,  nut¬ 
megs,  mace,  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  chilies.  The  exports  for  1913 
to  1920  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Year. 

Pepper. 

Cultivated 

nutmegs. 

Wild 

nut¬ 

megs. 

Mace. 

Cinna¬ 

mon 

bark. 

Cloves. 

Chili 

pep¬ 

pers. 

White. 

Black. 

In 

husk. 

Decor¬ 

ticated. 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

1913: 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2, 058 

5, 300 

97 

84 

30 

21 

1 

656 

Outer  Possessions . 

2, 424 

9'  182 

1, 752 

1, 158 

26 

567 

862 

47 

1914: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,947 

8, 394 

133 

91 

42 

70 

614 

Outer  Possessions . 

3' 262 

7,906 

1,204 

1, 042 

5021 

803 

70 

1915: 

Java  and  Madoera . . 

789 

6,  789 

88 

118 

38 

40 

4 

764 

Outer  Possessions . . . 

4, 097 

10'  574 

1,391 

1, 324 

7 

1,727 

1,215 

105 

1916: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1, 340 

7,  999 

132 

149 

45 

171 

16 

1,350 

Outer  Possessions . 

5' 242 

8,778 

1,937 

1,990 

52 

668 

1,825 

102 

1917: 

Java  and  Madoera . . 

2, 371 

9,  869 

141 

984 

45 

188 

522 

Outer  Possessions . 

4,900 

10'  875 

1,594 

155 

74 

454 

754 

98 

1918: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,716 

10, 135 

114 

101 

39 

399 

2 

148 

Outer  Possessions. . 

4, 154 

9'  894 

1,464 

649 

59 

347 

465 

57 

1919: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3, 653 

20,  354 

177 

136 

57 

574 

38 

486 

Outer  Possessions . 

4*061 

12*  043 

1,902 

1, 736 

42 

605 

1,804 

167 

1920‘. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,661 

7,515 

124 

189 

50 

336 

42 

771 

Outer  Possessions . 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


157 


PEPPER. 

Black  and  white  pepper  are  products  of  a  creeper  which  is  culti¬ 
vated  in  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  surrounding  islands  and  to  a 
small  extent  in  Java.  Cultivation  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  is  done 
exclusively  by  natives  and  Chinese. 

The  pepper  berries  grow  in  bunches  and  ripen  irregularly.  In 
making  black  pepper  the  bunches  are  piled  in  heaps  to  induce  fer¬ 
mentation  and  are  afterwards  dried  in  the  sun.  During  this  process 
the  berries  are  separated  from  each  other  by  trampling.  When  thor¬ 
oughly  dry  they  are  sorted  and  sifted. 

White  pepper  is  made  from  selected  berries  of  the  best  varieties. 
These  are  put  into  bags  or  baskets  and  immersed  in  slowly  running 
water.  After  about  eight  days  the  fruit  bursts  or  becomes  so  soft 
that  the  outside  flesh  can  be  removed  by  trampling.  After  separa¬ 
tion  they  are  thoroughly  washed  in  clear,  running  water  and  dried, 
when  they  are  ready  for  the  market. 

BLACK  PEPPER. 

Java,  which  at  one  time  was  a  most  important  center  of  pepper 
cultivation,  to-day  supplies  but  small  quantities.  The  principal 
producing  districts,  with  the  quantites  in  metric  tons,  in  1919  were  as 
follows : 


Districts. 

Metric  tons. 

Districts. 

Metric  tons. 

Southern  Sumatra: 

Eastern  Borneo:  Kota  Baroe . 

2,495 

Palembang . 

2,074 

Southern  Borneo:  Bandjermasin . 

224 

Telokbetong . 

1, 161 

Western  Borneo: 

Atjeh: 

Pontianak . 

119 

Langsa . 

1,657 

Sambas . 

153 

Idi.T . 

718 

Singkawang . 

97 

Sigli . 

692 

Pemangat . 

32 

Pangkalanbrandan . 

594 

Celebes:  Macassar . 

67 

Oelee  Lheue . 

391 

Banka: 

Lho  Seuinawe . 

371 

Soengailiat . 

188 

Meulaboh . 

206 

Muntok . 

121 

Tjalang . 

176 

Blinjoe . 

87 

Belawan  Deli . 

46 

Pangkalbalem . 

336 

Tandjoengbalai . 

18 

There  is  some  production  of  pepper  in  Java,  but  most  of  the  20,079 
tons  shipped  from  Tandjoengpriok  (Batavia's  port)  was  grown  in 
the  Lampong  district,  whence  it  was  shipped  to  Batavia  through  its 
port,  Telokbetong.  During  the  same  year  there  were  232  tons  shipped 
from  Semarang. 

The  black  pepper  from  northern  Sumatra  (Atjeh),  and  from 
Palembang  to  a  slightly  lesser  extent,  *is  collected  from  the  growers 
in  the  first  instance  by  Chinese  shopkeepers  or  buying  agents  acting 
for  exporters  in  the  larger  towns,  who  have  their  principal  business 
connections  in  Singapore  or  Penang.  The  shipments  to  the  Straits 
cities  are  generally  in  the  form  of  consignments  and  depend  on  the 
consignees  to  take  advantage  of  the  market  fluctuations. 

Palembang  pepper  also  goes  to  Batavia,  and  practically  all  of  the 
Lampong  crop  goes  to  that  market.  While  the  Chinese  are  important 
in  the  trade  in  the  Lampongs,  the  bulk  of  the  business  is  done  by 
Dutch  houses  and  one  large  German  concern.  These  firms  make 


158  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


advances  to  the  growers  and  intrust  their  traveling  agents  with  large 
sums  of  money  during  the  buying  season. 

Pepper  from  western  Borneo  goes  most  largely  to  Singapore 
through  the  Chinese  organization,  which  is  closely  connected  with 
Singapore  Chinese.  Poeloe  Laoet  (Kota  Baroe)  pepper  comes  from 
the  island  of  that  name  off  the  southeast  coast  of  Borneo  and  is 
marketed  through  Singapore  and  Batavia. 

Exports  of  black  pepper,  by  countries,  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 


Countries. 


1913 


1917 


1918 


1919 


19201 


1921  (9 
months).1 


Metric  tons. 


Metric  tons. 


Metric  tons. 


Metric  tons. 


Metric  tons. 


Metric  tons. 


Netherlands . . 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany  and  Austria 

Other  European . 

Singapore . 

Penang . . 

Hongkong . . 

Japan . . 

China . . 

Australia . . 

All  other . . 


4,  218 
390 
31 
294 
265 
3,844 
4,973 


234 

230 


8,517 

212 


14 
6,  084 
5,346 
89 
126 
287 
33 
36 


8,902 


21 
5, 181 
4,983 
53 
456 
257 
35 
141 


5, 151 
6,644 
4,986* 


1,  011 
9,618 
3,581 
655 


599 

45 

107 


590 
1, 626 
408 


37 

3,986 


266 


504 

22 

76 


435 
6, 119 

830 

552 


122 


Total 


14,  479 


20,  744 


20,029 


32,  397 


7,  515 


8,058 


Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions. 


5,297 

9,182 


9,869 
10,  875 


10, 135 
9,894 


20,  354 
12,  043 


1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Singapore  and  Penang  have  always  been  the  important  pepper 
markets,  although  but  little  is  grown  in  the  British  possessions,  a 
large  part  of  the  imports  reaching  the  United  States  through  those 
ports. 

The  1920  and  1921  returns  of  the  trade  of  the  Outer  Possessions, 
from  which  most  of  the  pepper  is  shipped,  are  not  available,  so  no 
safe  conclusions  may  be  drawn  as  to  the  readjustments  in  favor  of 
the  European  markets  to  pre-war  conditions,  but  the  indications  are 
that  the  American  buyers  are  getting  considerable  quantities  in  di¬ 
rect  shipments. 

WHITE  PEPPER. 


The  islands  of  Banka  and  Poeloe  Laoet  and  the  mainland  of  west¬ 
ern  Borneo  produce  the  largest  quantities  of  white  pepper,  most  of 
which  is  shipped  to  Singapore.  White  Muntok  pepper  from  the 
island  of  Banka  is  the  best  of  the  white  peppers,  but  this  grade  has 
been  deteriorating  during  the  past  few  years,  probably  due  to  mix¬ 
ing  or  “bulking”  in  the  Singapore  market. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  white  pepper  for  1913 
and  for  1917  to  1921,  as  far  the  returns  are  available: 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


159 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (9 
months).1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
74S 

Metric  tons. 
351 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
795 

Metric  tons. 
355 

Metric  tons. 

Great  Britain . 

224 

61 

1, 207 

349 

Germany  and  Austria . 

1,065 

96 

590 

France . 

16 

47 

Scandinavia . 

10 

2 

10 

331 

Other  European . 

5 

United  States . 

16 

1, 631 

965 

733 

417 

515 

Singapore . 

2,382 

2 

4,  887 

4, 134 

4,260 

58 

Penang . 

2 

1 

Hongkong . 

9 

6 

127 

6 

Japan . 

10 

35 

Australia . 

251 

425 

306 

329 

175 

All  other . 

5 

131 

113 

28 

115 

14 

Total . 

4,482 

7,271 

5,  870 

7,714 

1,  661 

1,352 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2,  058 

2,371 

4,900 

1, 716 
4, 154 

3, 653 
4,061 

Outer  Possessions . 

2,  424 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Contracts  of  sale. — Three  contract  forms  are  used  in  Batavia  in 
the  sale  of  pepper — one  for  sales  of  “  black  Lampong  pepper  ”  ex- 
warehouse,  one  for  its  sale  “  free  on  board,”  and  one  for  the  sale  of 
white  Muntok  pepper. 

PEPPER  TRADE  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  1920  imports  of  black  and  white  pepper  into  Singapore  and 
Penang,  by  countries,  were  as  follows : 


From— 

'  To  (port  of  entry) — 

Black 

pepper. 

White 

pepper. 

Sarawak . 

Singapore . 

Metric  tons. 
256 

7 

610 
23 
1, 136 
4, 389 

6 

1, 805 
2, 267 
398 
83 
40 
228 

4 

Metric  tons. 
857 

Federated  Malay  States . 

. do . 

Non-Federated  Malay  States . 

. do . 

Borneo . 

Penang . 

Singapore . 

1,519 

7 

Java . . . 

_ .do . 

Sumatra . 

Penang . 

Singapore . 

45 

1 

2,240 

40 

Other  Dutch  islands . 

Penang . 

Singapore . 

Siam . 

. do . 

All  other . 

Penang . 

Singapore . 

Total . 

Penang . 

10 

11,252 

4,719 

Exported  from: 

Singapore . 

8,910 

2,342 

4,718 

1 

Penang . 

160  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Exports  of  pepper  from  the  Straits  Settlements,  by  countries,  for 
1920  were  as  follows: 


United  States . 

United  Kingdom . 

British  India  and  Burma 

Ceylon . . 

Hongkong . 

Canada . 

Australia . . . 

New  Zealand . 

Egypt . 

Other  British . 

Belgium . ; 

Denmark . 

France . . 


Italy . 

Netherlands. 

China . 

All  other. ... 


Total 


Countries. 


Black 

pepper. 

White 

pepper. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

93 

632 

1,613 

2, 621 

170 

332 

19 

2,510 

6 

93 

236 

83 

202 

13 

6 

1, 564 

79 

150 

202 

34 

76 

10 

356 

326 

1,169 

35 

10 

1,640 

326 

696 

47 

10,289 

5,060 

The  At]  eh  pepper  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chi¬ 
nese,  whose  principal  connections  are  with  Singapore  and  Penang 
importers. 

White  pepper  comes  principally  from  the  island  of  Banka,  taking 
the  name  of  “  Muntok  ”  pepper  from  the  principal  port  of  that 
island.  It  goes  to  Singapore  or  to  Batavia,  as  the  market  prices 
or  trade  connections  dictate.  The  best  of  the  white  pepper  comes 
from  this  island,  while  a  second  quality  comes  from  Poeloe  Laoet, 
a  third  quality  from  Bandjermasm  and  Pontianak,  and  a  fourth 
from  Sarawak.  These  gradings  are  in  the  general  run  of  the  output, 
although  there  are  some  subgrades. 


CHILI  PEPPERS. 


Chili  peppers  are  grown  for  local  consumption,  and  a  few  hun¬ 
dred  tons  are  exported  to  Singapore  via  Semarang. 

NUTMEGS  AND  MACE. 


The  nutmeg  is  indigenous  to  the  Moluccas  and  the  production  at 
one  time  was  limited  to  Amboina  and  Banda  Neira,  but  under  a  less 
rigid  culture  system  it  has  extended  somewhat. 

A  century  or  more  ago  other  tropical  countries  undertook  the  cul¬ 
ture,  but  disease  and  pests,  combined  with  low  prices  resultant  from 
overproduction,  made  it  unprofitable,  and  it  is  now  limited  to  the 
Moluccas,  northeast  Celebes,  and  the  islands  to  the  north,  and,  for 
very  inferior  qualities,  to  Sumatra  West  Coast  and  Java. 

Except  in  Banda  Neira,  Amboina,  and  Java,  where  the  nutmeg  is 
grown  on  European-owned  estates,  it  is  cultivated  by  natives  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  houses.  The  trees  bear  fruit  throughout  the  year, 
but  the  crop  is  larger  in  some  months  than  in  others.  In  Banda 
Neira  half  the  crop  is  harvested  in  July  and  August. 

Mace  is  the  closely  adhering  aril  of  the  shell  which  contains  the 
nutmeg.  After  the  mace  has  been  removed  the  nuts,  are  slowly  dried 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


161 


in  kilns,  the  process  requiring  from  four  to  six  weeks,  after  which 
they  are  decorticated.  The  kernels,  or  nutmegs,  are  then  graded 
into  three  qualities — the  full  and  sound  nutmegs,  the  wrinkled  nut¬ 
megs  (generally  from  unripe  fruit),  and  broken,  damaged,  and 
worm-eaten  nutmegs.  These  are  again  graded  according  to  size, 
ranging,  in  the  Moluccas,  from  60  to  250  nuts  to  the  half  kilo  (1.102 
pounds).  After  grading  for  size  the  twin  nuts  (flattened  on  one  side) 
are  separated  into  two  grades  according  to  the  depth  of  the  wrinkles. 
After  the  sorting  the  nutmegs  are  placed  in  baskets  and  dipped  in 
limed  water,  and  after  drying  are  again  inspected  for  defects,  which 
become  more  apparent  after  this  process. 

In  Sumatra  West  Coast  only  two  grades  are  made — sound  and 
defective  nutmegs. 

Menado  and  the  islands  to  the  north  ship  most  of  their  crop  in  the 
shell.  These  go  principally  to  Singapore. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  nutmegs,  by  countries : 


[In  metric  tons.] 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921  (9 
months;.1 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

In  the 
shell. 

De¬ 

corti¬ 

cated. 

Netherlands . 

131 

1, 008 

69 

456 

49 

156 

19 

76 

United  States . 

4 

127 

79 

1,079 

623 

28 

1, 193 

6 

24 

5 

16 

Great  Britain . 

18 

5 

6 

11 

18 

3 

7 

4 

Other  European . 

26 

36 

1 

12 

Singapore . . 

]  540 

2 

17516 

37 

1,475 

73 

1,846 

165 

59 

5 

43 

Penang . 

128 

20 

132 

96 

13 

'  110 

17 

Australia . 

2 

44 

2 

7 

7 

13 

3 

Japan . 

7 

28 

2 

All  other . 

2 

10 

6 

13 

4 

Total . 

1,849 

1,242 

1,735 

1, 139 

1,  578 

750 

2, 079 

1,872 

124 

189 

73 

92 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

97 

84 

141 

984 

114 

101 

177 

136 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,752 

1,158 

1,  594 

155 

1,464 

649 

1,902 

1,736 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Before  the  war  decorticated  nutmegs  were  shipped  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  to  the  Netherlands,  from  whence  they  entered  the  world’s 
markets,  but  since  that  period  they  have  been  shipped  principally 
to  the  United  States,  until  1920,  when  many  of  the  shipments  of  the 
best  grades  were  again  sent  to  the  Netherlands. 

After  being  carefully  detached  from  the  shell  of  the  nutmeg  the 
mace  is  flattened  and  dried  in  the  sun,  which  causes  it  to  turn  to  an 
orange  or  yellow  color.  It  is  graded  according  to  color,  and  the 
broken  pieces  go  into  a  lower  grade. 


162  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Exports  of  mace,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921  (9 
months).1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tors. 
358 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
171 

Metric  tons. 
36 

Metric  tons. 

16 

United  States . 

41 

301 

126 

194 

2 

4 

Great  Britain . 

6 

6 

14 

1 

Other  European . 

12 

5 

Singapore .  . . 

151 

174 

234 

261 

6 

4 

Penang . 

22 

17 

20 

16 

Australia . 

1 

1 

Japan . 

1 

All  other . 

6 

5 

6 

1 

Total . 

597 

499 

386 

662 

50 

25 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

30 

45 

39 

57 

Outer  Possessions . 

567 

454 

347 

605 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Mace  exports  of  first  grades  in  pre-war  years  went  to  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  from  which  country  they,  entered  the  world’s  markets,  while 
the  low  grades  went  to  Singapore.  During  the  war  the  first  grades 
were  shipped  to  the  United  States,  but  the  indications  are  that  in 
1920  and  1921  the  first  grades  again  went  to  the  Netherlands. 

Nutmegs  were  formerly  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the 
island  of  Penang.  The  cultivation  has  been  abandoned  to  a  large 
extent. 

In  1919,  30,929  piculs,  valued  at  S$792,676,  were  received  at  Singa¬ 
pore,  and  2,451  piculs,  valued  at  S$45,525,  at  Penang  (1  picul=133i 
pounds;  1  Straits  dollar =$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.).  These  are  all 
credited  to  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and  Sumatra  and  in¬ 
clude  both  shelled  and  unshelled  nuts.  According  to  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  customs  returns,  the  exports  to  Singapore  and  Penang 
were  approximately  33,500  piculs,  divided  as  follows:  Java,  1,000 
piculs,  of  which  71  per  cent  were  unshelled  and  29  per  cent  shelled, 
and  32,500  piculs  from  the  Outer  Possessions,  of  which  2,500  piculs 
were  shelled  and  30,000  piculs  unshelled.  Of  the  unshelled  nutmegs 
approximately  53  per  cent  came  from  the  Sangir  Islands,  25  per 
cent  from  Menado,  11  per  cent  from  Amboina,  6  per  cent  from 
Sumatra,  and  5  per  cent  from  Ternate. 

The  unshelled  nutmegs  are  received  on  consignment  by  the  Chi¬ 
nese  merchants  from  their  connections  near  the  point  of  produc¬ 
tion  and  are  shelled,  graded,  limed,  and  packed  for  shipment  in 
Singapore.  The  better  grades  of  nutmegs  come  from  Ambon  and 
Banda  Neira  and  are  usually  limed,  graded,  and  packed  at  those 
points  or  at  Macassar.  They  are  sometimes  imported  direct  by  the 
European  exporters  at  Singapore,  either  as  consignments  or  as  direct 
purchases,  but  the  Chinese  importers  also  figure  in  this  trade,  always 
receiving  their  supplies  on  consignment.  Padang  nutmegs  are  re¬ 
ceived  in  Singapore  and  Penang  limed  and  graded  in  two  qualities, 
no  grading  for  size  being  done. 

The  exports  from  Singapore  during  1919  were  18,768  piculs, 
valued  at  S$707,586,  and  Penang  exported  3,624  piculs,  valued  at 
S$154,969.  These  exports  were  divided  by  countries  of  destination 
as  follows:  Great  Britain,  S$278,527;  British  India  and  Burma, 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


163 


S$296,427 ;  Hongkong,  S$42,683 ;  Canada,  S$5,779 ;  Australia,  S$62,- 
397;  New  Zealand,  S$5,400;  Egypt,  S$2,060;  South  African  Union, 
S$4,043;  continental  Europe,  S$58,935;  Siam,  S$l,278;  United 
States,  S$87,967 ;  and  other  countries,  S$17,059. 

Like  nutmegs,  mace  comes  almost  exclusively  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies.  In  1919  Singapore  imported  3,525  piculs,  valued  at 
S$198,870,  and  Penang  received  324  piculs,  valued  at  S$16,353.  The 
Chinese  merchants,  acting  for  their  connections  near  the  points  of 
production,  figure  largely  in  this  trade,  but  there  are  also  transac¬ 
tions  between  the  Dutch  merchants  at  Macassar,  Ambon,  and  other 
points  with  European  merchants  in  Singapore. 

In  1919  there  were  exported  from  Singapore  2,851  piculs  of  mace, 
valued  at  S$167,346,  and  from  Penang  1,402  piculs,  valued  at  S$93,- 
088.  These  exports  were  divided  by  countries  of  destination  as 
follows:  Great  Britain,  S$80,794;  British  India  and  Burma,  S$lll,- 
106;  Australia,  S$25,146;  New  Zealand,  S$l,927;  continental  Europe, 
S$9,740;  Siam,  S$3,276;  United  States,  S$26,780;  and  all  others, 
S$l,665. 

CLOVES. 


Exports  of  cloves  from  Java  and  Madoera  and  the  Outer  Posses¬ 
sions,  by  countries,  are  shown  below. 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (9 
months).1 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

5 

136 

13 

United  States . 

95 

41 

8 

10 

Great  Britain . 

4 

Other  European . 

10 

Singapore . . 

42 

2 

5 

41 

1 

1 

Penang . 

5 

Japan . 

1 

3 

6 

9 

All  other . 

1 

5 

4 

13 

1 

Total . 

48 

98 

59 

205 

41 

11 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1 

2 

38 

Outer  Possessions . 

47 

98 

57 

167 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  principal  producing  district  is  the  island  of  Amboina  and 
vicinity,  although  there  is  a  small  production  on  the  island  of  Java. 
The  clove  is  indigenous  to  the  Moluccas,  but  it  has  been  cultivated 
in  Zanzibar,  and  Madagascar  has  also  had  some  success.  As  in 
other  spices  the  United  States  took  the  largest  part  of  the  exports, 
but  the  Netherlands  regained  the  market  later. 

In  1919  Singapore  imported  10,135  piculs  of  cloves,  valued  at 
S$650,933,  and  Penang  imported  427  piculs,  valued  at  S$30,057  (1 
picul=133^  pounds;  1  Straits  dollar=$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.).  Most 
of  these  imports  came  from  British  India,  and  but  788  piculs,  valued 
at  S$70,682,  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 

Exports  of  cloves  from  Singapore  in  1919  were  12,411  piculs,  val¬ 
ued  at  S$749,993.  Of  this  amount  669  piculs,  valued  at  S$70,040, 
went  to  Great  Britain;  2.368  piculs,  valued  at  S$119,177,  to  Plong- 
kong;  368  piculs,  valued  at  S$27,331,  to  other  British  possessions;  148 
piculs,  valued  at  S$ll,131,  to  Siam;  152  piculs,  valued  at  S$8,160,  to 

19878°— 23 - 12 


164  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


China;  284  piculs,  valued  at  S$27,400,  to  Japan;  8,093  piculs,  valued 
at  S$455,042,  to  the  Netherlands  Indies;  188  piculs,  valued  at 
S$20,712,  to  the  United  States;  and  141  piculs,  valued  at  S$11,000, 
to  all  other  countries., 

The  best  cloves  are  grown  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  and  inferior 
cloves  are  grown  in  British  India  and  Penang.  British  Indian  and 
Penang  cloves  are  imported  into  Singapore.  A  large  part  of  these 
inferior  cloves  goes  to  Java  and  to  the  clove-growing  districts  of  the 
Outer  Possessions,  from  whence  they  find  their  way  to  the  consum¬ 
ing  markets  as  Netherlands  Indies  cloves,  either  by  direct  export  or 
through  the  Netherlands  market  cities. 

CINNAMON  BARKS. 

Cinnamon  barks  are  listed  in  the  export  returns  as  kaneel  (cinna¬ 
mon)  and  kaneelkassie  (cassia  vera).  The  Exporters’  Directory, 
published  by  the  Netherlands  Indies  Government,  gives  the  follow¬ 
ing  description  of  these  barks,  which  are  grown  principally  in  Java: 

Cinnamon  barks  occupy  a  fairly  important  position  among  the  spices  pro¬ 
duced  by  this  colony.  The  barks  are  obtained  from  trees  of  the  cinnamon  spe¬ 
cies,  the  noblest  representative  of  which,  the  G.  zeylanicum,  is,  however,  only 
cultivated  at  present  on  a  small  scale  on  some  European-owned  plantations. 
Other  good  species  are  also  grown,  and  in  addition  thereto  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  possess  a  cinnamon  tree  of  high  value,  viz,  the  G.  burmanni,  which 
is  found  in  a  wild  state  throughout  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

The  G.  cassia  or  genuine  Chinese  cinnamon  tree  contributes  a  trifling  quan¬ 
tity  only  to  the  total  crop. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  exports  of  cassia,  or  cinnamon, 
from  the  Netherlands  Indies,  by  countries: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (9 
months).1 

Netherlands  . 

Metric  tons. 

1 

2 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

6 

33 

Metric  tons. 

2 

United  States . 

1 

22 

23 

19 

85 

Great  Britain . 

Other  F.nropean . _ . 

6 

97 

3 

8 

40 

Penang  and"  Signaporc . 

All  other . 

55 

29 

3 

36 

Total . 

58 

33 

36 

149 

145 

50 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Kaneelkassie  or  cassia  vera. — This  is  an  important  crop  of  the 
Residency  of  Sumatra  West  Coast,  where  it  is  grown  in  the  high¬ 
lands.  It  is  separated  into  A,  B,  and  C  grades  for  export,  A  and  B 
grades  coming  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  C  grade  from  the 
branches  and  twigs.  The  best  qualities  of  all  grades  come  in  small 
quantities  from  the  Mandailing  and  Korintji  districts  tributary  to 
Padang,  while  the  bulk  of  the  export  comes  from  the  districts  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Fort  de  Ivock  and  Padangpandjang,  a  slightly 
inferior  quality  being  grown,  in  the  Fort  van  der  Capellan  and 
Payu  Koemboeh  districts.  The  A  quality  is  packed  in  100-pound 
bales,  B  quality  in  70-pound  bales,  and  C  quality  is  pressed  into  bales 
of  1  cubic  meter,  weighing  approximately  200  pounds.  The  relative 
production  is  50  per  cent  A  grade,  40  per  cent  B  grade,  and  10  per 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


165 


cent  C  grade.  There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  native  growers 
to  mix  the  various  qualities  and  even  to  put  in  barks  of  similar  ap¬ 
pearance  with  no  oil  content  whatever. 

Exports  of  cassia  vera,  by  countries,  are  given  below. 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921  (9 
months).1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
421 
371 

Metric  tons. 
909 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,023 
834 
20 
331 

Metric  tons. 
157 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

465 

49 

5 

Great  Britain . 

19 

Other  European . 

53 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

15 

1 

All  other . T.T . 

17 

4 

15 

Total . 

862 

909 

481 

2,212 

191 

54 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  export  is  practically  all  grown  in  the  Sumatra  "V^est  Coast, 
but  a  considerable  portion  is  shipped  to  Batavia  for  export. 

Cinnamon. — The  customs  returns  of  the  Straits  Settlements  show 
an  import  in  1919  of  only  714  piculs  of  true  cinnamon,  valued  at 
S$10,891,  119  piculs  of  which  came  from  British  India,  and  an  export 
of  480  piculs,  valued  at  S$9,491,  most  of  which  went  to  British  India, 
Egypt,  and  Siam.  The  customs  returns  for  the  Netherlands  Indies 
show  an  export  to  the  Straits  Settlements  of  over  85  tons,  equivalent 
to  over  1,300  piculs.  These  customs  figures  can  not  be  relied  upon,  as 
the  officials  apparently  do  not  draw  a  strict  line  between  true  cinna¬ 
mon  and  cassia  vera. 

Ceylon  is  the  home  of  this  product,  but  small  quantities  are  grown 
in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  most  of  which  is  sold  through  the  Dutch 
markets,  either  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  or  in  the  Netherlands. 
Singapore  is  unimportant  in.  the  trade. 

Cassia. — The  trade  in  cassia  (cassia  vera,  a  false  cinnamon)  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  is  very  small,  as  the  trade  in  the  Netherlands 
Indies,  where  it  is  produced,  is  well  organized  for  direct  export.  In 
1919  the  imports  amounted  to  898  piculs,  valued  at  S$20,962,  all  at 
Singapore.  Java  and  Sumatra  supplied  776  piculs  of  this  amount. 
Denmark  is  given  as  the  destination  of  1,680  piculs  of  the  exports. 

CARDAMOMS. 

The  trade  in  cardamoms  (a  sort  of  ginger)  in  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments  is  very  small.  Practically  all  the  imports,  which  amounted  in 
1919  to  1,842  piculs,  valued  at  S$241,425,  were  from  Java  and  Su¬ 
matra,  and  the  exports,  amounting  to  1,726  piculs,  valued  at  S$156,- 
435,  went  chiefly  to  Hongkong,  where  they  are  preserved  and  used 
in  the  local  trade  and  reexported. 

ARECA  NUTS. 

Areca  nuts  (Penang  nuts  or  betel  nuts)  are  used  by  the  natives  of 
the  tropical  Orient  for  chewing  with  lime,  gambier,  or  some  other 
astringent.  The  trade  in  these  nuts  is  limited  to  the  countries  where 
the  natives  are  addicted  to  their  use.  In  1919  Singapore  imported 
533,592  piculs  (1  picul=133^  pounds),  valued  at  S$4,399,038,  and 
exported  578,842  piculs,  valued  at  S$5,524,825;  Penang  imported 


166  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

305,615  piculs,  valued  at  S$l,962,881,  and  exported  368,173  piculs, 
valued  at  S$3 ,022,695.  The  districts  producing  the  bulk  of  the  im¬ 
ports  were  the  Non-Federated  Malay  States  and  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Bali  and  Lombok,  and  the  destinations  of  most  of  the  exports  were 
British  India  and  Burma,  Hongkong,  oriental  French  possessions, 
and  Siam.  This  trade  is  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  Arabs, 
and  other  orientals. 

MEDICINAL  PLANTS. 

CUBEBS. 

Cubebs  are  grown  principally  in  Java,  annual  exports  of  this 
product  ranging  from  100  tons  and  upward. 

No  cubebs  are  grown  in  British  Malaya.  In  1919,  1,984  piculs, 
valued  at  S$207,209,  were  imported,  all  from  the  Netherlands  Indies 
and  through  Singapore.  The  exports  were  1,652  piculs,  valued  at 
S$278,333.  Of  these,  67  piculs,  valued  at  S$9,400,  went  to  Great 
Britain;  867  piculs,  valued  at  S$109,043,  to  British  India  and 
Burma;  339  piculs,  valued  at  S$37,592,  to  Japan;  360  piculs,  valued 
at  S$120,218,  to  the  United  States;  and  19  piculs,  valued  at  S$2,080, 
to  other  countries. 

Practically  all  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  production  of  cubebs  was 
marketed  in  Singapore  in  1919. 

COCA  LEAVES  AND  COCAINE. 

There  are  47  estates,  all  in  Java,  which  cultivate  the  plant  Ery- 
throxylum  coca ,  from  which  cocaine  is  made.  The  total  area  in 
1919,  according  to  a  statement  by  the  Netherlands  Indies  Govern¬ 
ment,  was  5,661  acres,  mostly  interplanted  or  planted  as  a  minor 
crop. 

The  quantities  of  coca  leaves  and  dust  sold  at  the  Amsterdam  auc¬ 
tions  and  the  alkaloid  content  are  shown  in  kilos  (1  kiloi=2.204 
pounds)  in  the  following  table: 


Year. 

In  auction. 

Outside  of  auction. 

Coca. 

Total 

alkaloid 

content. 

Coca. 

Total 

alkaloid 

content. 

1913 . 

Kilos. 

846. 255 
903, 638 

114. 255 
40, 172 

5,  610 
Nil. 
157, 740 

Kilos. 

13, 062 
14,918 
1,717 
650 
103 
Nil. 
2,147 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

1914 . 

87,674 
277, 165 
224, 699 
316, 302 
23, 588 
196,429 

i,  455 
4, 580 
4,022 
4,  562 
286 
2, 495 

1915 . 

1916 . 

1917 . 

1918 . 

1919 . 

Exports  of  coca  leaves,  by  countries,  were  as  follows: 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


167 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1,234 

Metric  tons. 
14 
235 

4 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
756 
l  25 

6 

Metric  tons. 
1,393 
11 
3 

United  States . 

408 

Great  Britain . 

92 

9 

Germany . 

Japan . 

17 

2 

254 

107 

269 

Australia . 

Total . 

1, 335 

272 

662 

904 

1,676 

CACAO  AND  VANILLA  BEANS. 


There  are  about  29  European-owned  estates  in  Java  cultivating 
approximately  14,000  acres  of  cacao  to  some  extent  as  a  subsidiary 
crop,  according  to  an  official  statement.  There  was  a  small  produc¬ 
tion  in  the  Sumatra  West  Coast  Residency,  all  of  which  went  to  the 
Netherlands  in  1920. 

The  Java  product  is  much  better  than  that  grown  in  Sumatra, 
although  both  qualities  are  of  a  lighter  color  than  that  of  most  of 
the  cacao  grown  in  other  producing  countries.  In  Java  the  areas 
under  cultivation  remain  practically  the  same  year  by  year,  but  in 
Sumatra,  while  the  production  is  small,  there  is  a  tendency  to  in¬ 
crease. 

The  following  table  gives  the  exports  of  cacao  by  countries: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921  (9 
months). 

Netherlands . r . 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . . 

Singapore . 

i.11  other . 

Total . . 

Metric  tons. 
1,  774 
68 
131 
227 
60 

Metric  tons. 
142 
1, 132 
65 
29 
187 

Metric  tons. 

153 

243 

79 

331 

Metric  tons. 
1, 083 
747 
270 
167 
141 

Metric  tons. 
631 
42 
53 
165 
104 

Metric  tons. 
481 
140 
129 
150 
10 

2, 260 

1, 555 

806 

2,408 

995 

910 

Before  the  war  the  bulk  of  the  crop  went  to  the  Netherlands  for 
sale,  but  the  war  conditions  upset'  the  old-established  system,  and  in 
1917  over  70  per  cent  went  direct  to  the  United  States.  The  resump¬ 
tion  of  regular  steamship  service  in  1919  and  the  good  markets  pre¬ 
vailing  until  the  middle  of  1920  aided  in  restoring  pre-war  marketing 
conditions. 

There  are  but  small  quantities  of  vanilla  beans  grown  in  the  col¬ 
ony,  principally  in  Java.  The  export  is  negligible,  the  local  trade 
consuming  most  of  the  product. 

NATURAL  INDIGO. 

Indigo  is  grown  on  about  40  estates  in  Java  and  by  the  natives. 
The  estate  indigo,  which  is  grown  in  the  Residencies  of  Djokjakarta 
and  Soerakarta,  contains  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  indigotine.  The 
native  product  averages  only  three-fourths  to  1  per  cent  of  indigo¬ 
tine,  and  is  for  the  greater  part  used  in  the  island,  principally  for 
batik  work,  while  the  overproduction  usually  finds  a  market  in 
Singapore. 


168  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Exports  of  natural  indigo,  in  metric  tons  and  by  countries,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 

(9  months).1 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Netherlands . 

29 

United  States . 

4 

35 

10 

Great  Britain . 

Singapore . 

39 

1 

5 

442 

117 

10 

157 

26 

2 

16 

Hongkong . 

164 

Japan...  T. . 

5 

9 

2 

23 

39 

5 

25 

1 

All  other . 

1 

Total . 

41 

34 

447 

48 

119 

43 

164 

39 

157 

31 

2 

42 

1  Taken  from  the  monthly  returns  for  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Before  the  war  most  of  the  dry  indigo  went  direct  to  the  Nether¬ 
lands  and  the  wet  product  to  Singapore.  In  1917  Japan  entered  the 
market  for  both  qualities  and  in  the  two  following  years  took  the 
bulk  of  the  dry  product.  The  exports  for  1921  dropped  far  below 
normal,  with  Japan  as  the  principal  buyer  up  to  the  end  of  Sep¬ 
tember. 

The  United  States  bought  a  small  quantity  of  dry  indigo  in  1917, 
increasing  the  purchases  in  the  following  year,  but  has  since  been 
out  of  the  market. 

During  1919  dry  indigo  brought  from  7  to  11  florins  per  pound 
and  in  1920  the  price  rose  to  14  florins,  dropping  by  the  end  of  the 
year  to  5  florins. 

PINEAPPLE  INDUSTRY. 

« 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  the  growing  of  pineapples 
on  the  island  of  Singapore,  in  the  State  of  Johore,  and  on  the  Dutch 
islands  near  Singapore  was  an  important  industry,  the  pineapple 
canneries  at  Singapore  shipping  large  quantities  of  their  product  to 
the  European  and  American  markets.  But  even  in  1913  the  indus¬ 
try  was  declining,  as  the  cultivation  of  rubber  gradually  crowded  out 
all  the  minor  agricultural  products.  In  the  above-mentioned  dis¬ 
tricts,  however,  pineapples  were  grown  as  a  “catch  crop,”  inter- 
planted  among  the  rubber  trees  during  the  developing  period. 

Early  in  the  war  period  an  embargo  on  the  import  of  pineapples 
into  the  United  Kingdom  eliminated  an  important  part  of  the  mar¬ 
ket  and  the  factories  wTere  closed.  In  1918  the  embargo  was  removed, 
and  since  then  some  of  the  factories  have  been  reopened. 

In  1913,  S$4.80  was  considered  to  be  a  fair  price  for  a  case  of  forty- 
eight  Impound  tins.  In  1918,  on  the  resumption  of  production,  the 
price  ranged  around  S$8  per  case  and  advanced  gradually  to  S$18 
per  case  in  April,  1920,  after  which  there  was  a  sharp  decline,  reach¬ 
ing  S$7.50  per  case  in  February,  1921.  In  the  latter  part  of  August, 
1921,  prices  ranged  around  S$13  per  case. 

Canners  claim  that  it  does  not  pay  to  pack  at  S$7.50  per  case,  due 
to  the  higher  cost  of  sugar  and  tin  plate,  and  at  the  low  prices  for 
pineapples  growers  refuse  to  harvest  their  crops.  Packing  is  in 
cases  of  4  dozen  1-pound  tins,  4  dozen  lj-pound  tins,  3  dozen  2-pound 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


169 


tins,  2  dozen  2-J-pound  tins,  2  dozen  3-pound  tins,  six  6-pound  tins, 
and  six  8-pound  tins  (gross  weight).  The  basic  case  is  4  dozen 
lj-pound  tins. 

The  American  market  uses  Singapore  pineapples  for  making  glace 
fruits,  and  buys  2,  2-|,  3,  6,  and  8  pound  tins  only.  London  and  Liv¬ 
erpool  are  the  principal  markets,  although  there  is  a  regular  but 
comparatively  small  demand  from  France  and  Holland  and  in  nor¬ 
mal  times  from  Germany. 

The  principal  pineapple  packer  of  Singapore,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  is  pessimistic  regarding  the  future  of  the  industry. 
He  believes  the  Hawaiian  packs  will  be  successful  competitors  for 
the  business  offering  and  sees  no  way  for  the  improvement  of  the 
quality  of  the  Singapore  product.  Some  12  Chinese-owned  factories 
handle  the  Singapore  packs,  and  they  are  not  organized  on  the  basis 
of  cooperative  effort  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  fruit  produced. 
The  growers  are  Chinese,  cultivating  small  plots  over  a  widely  ex¬ 
tended  area.  These  growers  can  not  be  interested  in  planting  better 
stock  or  in  using  more  scientific  methods  of  cultivation. 

In  1920  exports  of  pineapples,  with  values  stated  in  Straits  dol¬ 
lars  (1  Straits  dollar=$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.),  were  as  follows: 
United  States,  13,232  cases,  S$234,684;  United  Kingdom,  320,241 
cases,  S$5,122,041 ;  British  India  and  Burma,  22,126  cases,  S$415,895 ; 
Hongkong,  4,186  cases,  S$64,106 ;  Canada,  52,742  cases,  S$862,885 ; 
Australia,  1,286  cases,  S$19,342;  New  Zealand,  6,579  cases,  S$67,291; 
Egypt,  4,079  cases,  S$67,226;  other  British  possessions,  3,775  cases, 
S$47,057 ;  Denmark,  2,397  cases,  S$36,791;  France,  6,381  cases, 
S$85,208;  Italy,  200  cases,  S$l,800;  Netherlands,  5,993  cases, 
S$93,414;  Japan,  2,407  cases,  S$43,441;  all  other  countries,  1,269  cases, 
S$16,835;  total,  446,893  cases,  valued  at  S$7,178,016. 

ESSENTIAL  OILS. 

CITRONELLA. 

Citronella  oil  is  a  product  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  tree 
Cymbopogon  nardus ,  which  differs  in  the  quality  of  the  oil  produced 
from  the  tree  of  the  same  name  grown  in  Ceylon.  This  tree  is  grown 
in  Java,  and  a  large  number  of  small  distilleries  are  engaged  in  the 
extraction  of  citronella  and  other  essential  oils. 

The  market  value  of  citronella  oil  depends  on  the  percentage  of 
the  geraniol  and  citronella!  content.  According  to  an  official  state¬ 
ment  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  Government  the  Java  product  con¬ 
tains  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  these  properties.  It  is  much  in 
demand  by  soap  manufacturers  on  account  of  the  high  percentage 
of  geraniol,  which  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  rose  oil.  Packing  is 
in  300-liter  drums  weighing  approximately  560  pounds  net. 


170  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Exports  of  citronella  oil,  by  countries,  are  given  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

(9  months). 

Metric  ton s. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

20 

6 

233 

124 

21 

United  States . 

7 

205 

84 

85 

77 

32 

Great  Britain . 

214 

91 

75 

3 

Germany . 

24 

5 

Other  European . 

24 

10 

75 

81 

15 

Singapore . 

13 

40 

24 

44 

8 

Hongkong . 

5 

6 

1 

2 

Japan . 

50 

80 

10 

19 

53 

Australia . 

2 

3 

5 

All  other . 

12 

11 

2 

8 

3 

Total . 

75 

516 

228 

529 

434 

142 

Prices  offering  have  caused  a  marked  increase  in  production  since 
1913,  and  the  United  States  has  appeared  as  a  direct  buyer,  as  well 
as  Japan. 

CAJEPUT  OIL. 

Cajeput  oil  is  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  plant  Malaleuca 
leucodendron  (Linn),  a  large  tree  which  grows  in  the  Moluccas, 
particularly  on  the  islands  of  Boeroe  and  Ceram.  There  is  no  pro¬ 
duction  in  Java.  Cultivation  and  preparation  are  done  entirely  by 
the  natives  of  those  islands.  The  following  table  shows  the  exports, 
by  countries: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 

6 

Metric  tons. 

1 

24 

1 

46 

5 

2 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

19 

16 

1 

65 

8 

United  States . . . 

5 

1 

24 

Great  Britain . 

Singapore . 

112 

2 

Hongkong . 

Japan . . 

2 

3 

All  other . 

4 

3 

Total . 

124 

79 

35 

112 

PATCHOULI  LEAVES  AND  OIL. 

Patchouli  is  grown  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  in  northern  Sumatra, 
in  Ceylon,  and  in  Japan.  In  the  Netherlands  Indies  it  is  grown 
principally  in  Atjeli  and  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  district  in  northern 
Sumatra,  and  most  of  the  leaves  are  shipped  to  Penang  and  Singa¬ 
pore,  although  some  of  the  Dutch  factories  distill  the  oil.  The  leaves 
yield  by  distillation  a  peculiar  heavy  brown  oil,  disagreeably 
odoriferous,  which  requires  extreme  dilution  for  perfumery  pur¬ 
poses. 

No  export  figures  for  either  the  leaves  or  the  oil  are  given  in  the 
customs  returns,  but  as  most  of  the  leaves  are  sent  to  the  Straits 
Settlements  the  imports  of  that  colony  from  the  Dutch  colony,  shown 
below,  are  interesting. 

Following  are  the  imports  of  patchouli  leaves  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  to  Singapore  and  Penang : 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


171 


Year. 

Singapore. 

Penang. 

1917 . 

Metric  tons. 
36 

Metric  tons. 

386 

1918 . 

76 

465 

1919 . 

50 

778 

1920 . 

41 

846 

OTHER  ESSENTIAL  OILS. 


Cananga  oil. — This  oil  is  distilled  from  the  flowers  of  the  tree 
Cananga  ordorata ,  which  grows  principally  in  west  Java.  This  oil 
resembles  in  many  respects  the  ylang-ylang  oil  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  was  distilled  by  the  natives  for  their  own  use  until  the 
last  few  years,  when  it  has  been  prepared  for  export,  with  a  good 
demand  from  Europe  and  America.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  perfume. 

Lemon-grass  oil. — This  is  the  product  of  the  leaves  and  bulbs  of 
the  plant  CymJbopogon  citratus ,  extracted  by  means  of  distillation. 
The  value  of  this  oil  depends  on  the  content  of  citral,  which,  in  the 
case  of  the  Java  product,  is  from  75  to  85  per  cent.  Packing  is  the 
same  as  for  citronella  oil. 

Palmarosa  oil. — This  product  is  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the 
tree  Cymbopogon  martini  (Stapf).  It  has  the  odor  of  roses  and  is 
used  in  making  fine  perfumes.  There  is  but  a  small  production. 

HIDES  AND  SKINS. 

The  cattle  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  raised  primarily  as 
draft  animals  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  the  killing  in  normal 
times  is  of  cattle  which  have  become  useless  as  draft  animals.  Stocks 
available  for  shipment  can  not  be  ascertained  with  even  an  approxi¬ 
mate  degree  of  accuracy,  as  they  are  held  by  small  dealers,  who  are 
the  original  purchasers  from  the  natives,  or  Chinese  or  Arab  traders, 
who  only  reveal  their  holdings  when  an  attractive  price  brings  about 
their  sale. 

In  east  Java  the  killing  of  calves  is  quite  a  common  practice,  and 
calf  hides  go  into  the  market  as  cow  hides.  During  the  past  few 
years  the  high  prices  have  tempted  the  owners  to  kill  younger  cattle, 
which  is  the  cause  of  the  general  decline  in  average  heights  of  both 
buffalo  and  cow  hides  shipped  from  Java. 

In  its  yearbook  for  1920  the  Government  states : 

The  importation  of  high-class  thoroughbreds  is  continued.  As  in  1917, 
also  in  1918  and  1919,  thoroughbred  bulls  and  cows  were  bought  in  Ongole 
(Madras  Presidency,  British  India)  and  were  sold  for  breeding  purposes  to 
the  native  population,  chiefly  of  the  Residencies  of  Kedoe  and  Rembang.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  the  results  are  very  good.  From  the  island  of  Sumba,  where  in 
3914  about  500  thoroughbred  cows  and  some  bulls  were  imported  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  producing  breeding  bulls  for  Java  and  elsewhere,  over  200  young  bulls 
were  obtained.  From  Guyrat  (Bombay  Presidency,  British  India)  were  im¬ 
ported  some  thoroughbred  bulls  and  cows  for  the  needs  of  native  cattle  breed¬ 
ing  on  Sumatra  West  Coast. 

To  improve  the  cattle  stock  of  various  dairies  in  Java,  the  number  of  which 
is  gradually  increasing,  and  where  milkers  of  European  blood  are  much  needed, 
thoroughbred  black-spotted  Dutch  bulls  are  used  on  the  “General  de  Wet” 
farm  at  Tjisaroea,  Preanger  Regencies.  In  the  Provinces  of  Bali  and  Lombok 


172  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


and  in  Madoera  good  results  are  obtained  by  pure  breeding  with  native  bulls. 
By  selection  and  castration  the  improvement  of  cattle  stock  is  also  promoted 
as  much  as  possible. 

Notwithstanding  the  above,  one  of  the  largest  exporters  states  that 
it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  quality  of  the  hides  will  improve.  A 
more  careful  grading  has  developed  during  the  past  few  years,  since 
American  buyers  have  been  in  the  market.  The  export  is  very 
largely  in  the  hands  of  a  few  exporters,  who  have  exercised  a  large 
influence,  through  the  Chinese  and  Arab  dealers,  for  more  careful 
handling  of  the  hides  by  the  native  butchers.  Shipments  are  care¬ 
fully  sorted  and  baled  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  market.  As  this  group  ships  the  larger  part  of  the  hides  ex¬ 
ported,  their  grades  may  be  taken  as  standard  and  are  given  below. 

Cow  hides,  including  calf. — First  quality  without  serious  defects,  own  prep¬ 
aration  :  Up  to  6  pounds ;  6  to  10  pounds ;  10  to  11  ^  pounds ;  11^  to  15  pounds ; 
15  pounds  and  up;  111  and  up,  thick  neck.  First  quality  own  preparation 
mixed  with  first  quality  native  preparation :  Up  to  6  pounds ;  6  to  10  pounds ; 
101  pounds  and  up ;  111  pounds  and  up.  thick  neck.  Second  quality  with  some 
minor  defects,  own  preparation :  Up  to  6  pounds ;  6  to  10  pounds ;  101  pounds  and 
up.  Second  quality,  native  preparation :  Up  to  6  pounds ;  6  to  10  pounds ;  101 
pounds  and  up.  Third  quality  rejects,  native  preparation :  All  weights. 

Buffalo  hides. — First  quality  free  from  serious  defects:  Light  up  to  13 
pounds ;  medium,  13  to  211  pounds ;  heavy,  211  to  27  pounds ;  very  heavy,  271 
pounds  and  up.  Second  quality  with  some  minor  defects:  Same  weights  as 
first  quality.  Third  quality  rejects :  Up  to  191  pounds ;  191  pounds  and  up. 

Locally  the  grades  for  both  cow  and  buffalo  hides  are  somewhat 
the  same,  running  “  fully  prime,”  “  prime,”  and  “  hides  with  faults.” 

In  1919  hides  from  Java  and  Madoera  were  shipped  chiefly  from 
the  following  ports : 


Ports. 

Cow  hides. 

Buffalo 

hides. 

Batavia . 

Number. 
72, 704 
736, 206 
275, 741 

Number. 
209,127 
99, 469 
277, 106 

Soerabaya . . 

Semarang . 

As  before  stated,  the  hide  business  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
of  the  larger  export  houses,  the  principal  ones  being  British  firms. 
Neither  hides  nor  skins  are  dealt  in  by  brokers,  and  the  nature  of  the 
business  keeps  speculation  down  to  the  minimum  necessary  for  collec¬ 
tion  and  delivery.  While  Soerabaya  figures  most  largely  in  the  ex¬ 
port,  Semarang  is  the  chief  collection  center,  with  Soerabaya  a  close 
second.  The  business  requires  the  utmost  care  of  experts,  and  the 
greatest  caution  should  be  exercised  in  dealing  with  houses  not  spe¬ 
cializing  in  the  trade. 

The  exports  of  buffalo  hides  from  Macassar  during  the  month  of 
May,  1920,  wTere  as  follows :  Netherlands,  16  metric  tons ;  Great  Brit¬ 
ain,  40  tons;  United  States,  5  tons;  Singapore,  1  ton;  and  Australia, 
one-half  ton.  The  shipments  of  buffalo  hides  to  Soerabaya  during 
the  same  period  amounted  to  17  tons.  A  large  part  of  the  Macassar 
product  goes  into  the  export  figures  of  Soerabaya,  as  do  those  of  Bali 
and  Lombok. 

Hides  from  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  (Tandjoengbalai)  go  direct 
to  the  Netherlands  and,  to  a  small  extent,  to  Singapore  and  Penang, 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS.  173 

and  from  Palembang,  Djambi,  and  Padang  (Sumatra  West  Coast) 
to  Batavia. 

No  data  are  available  as  to  the  local  consumption  of  leather.  There 
are  three  tanneries  of  importance  in  Soerabaya,  two  of  which  have  a 
considerable  capacity  and  are  planning  extensions. 

Because  of  the  high  prices  paid  for  hides,  some  exporters  have 
stated  that  during  the  past  few  years  so  many  cattle  have  been  killed 
that  the  breeding  stock  is  materially  decreased,  but  this  is  not  cor¬ 
roborated  by  the  Government  department  controlling  the  slaughter. 

A  statement  of  the  veterinary  division  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culturej  Industry,  and  Commerce  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  Govern¬ 
ment  gives  the  following  census  of  draft  animals  in  the  colony  as  of 
December  31,  1919: 


Countries. 

Cattle. 

Water 

buffaloes. 

Horses. 

Hogs. 

Goats. 

Sheep. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3, 699, 108 
641, 161 

• 

2, 128, 4S3 
958, 800 

296, 410 
306, 558 

66, 098 
600, 415 

2, 267, 791 
309,305 

738, 700 
114, 069 

Outer  Possessions . 

Total . 

4,340,269 

3,087, 283 

602, 968 

666, 513 

2, 577, 096 

852, 769 

There  is  a  large  predominance  of  water  buffaloes  in  Bantam, 
Batavia,  the  Preanger  Regencies  and  Cheribon,  in  western  Java, 
and  in  Kedoe  and  Madioen  Residencies,  in  central  Java,  while 
in  eastern  Java  there  is  a  predominance  of  cattle  of  the  Bangkok 
and  Bengal  types.  The  totals  for  Java  and  Madoera  show  that 
58  per  cent  of  the  horned  draft  animals  are  Bengal  type  cattle  and 
42  per  cent  water  buffaloes. 

In  Sumatra  the  differences  are  not  so  definitely  marked,  but 
in  the  Celebes  there  is  a  predominance  of  water  buffaloes  in  the 
southern  part  and  of  Bangkok  and  Bengal  cattle  in  the  Menado 
Residency  in  the  north.  In  the  Residency  of  Timor,  in  the  Smaller 
Soenda  Islands,  there  is  a  very  large  predominance  of  water  buf¬ 
faloes,  while  joining  this  residency  on  the  west,  in  the  islands  of 
Bali  and  Lombok,  Bangkok  and  Bengali  cattle  are  bred  almost 
exclusively. 

The  slaughter  of  animals  during  the  period  1913-1919  is  shown 
in  the  following  table: 


Animals. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Cattle: 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

348, 550 

329, 462 

357,090 

398, 150 

445, 159 

431, 202 

530, 554 

Outer  Possessions . 

42, 984 

42,  534 

42, 642 

63, 080 

99, 460 

98, 550 

116, 995 

Water  buffaloes: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

316, 107 

231, 262 

256, 670 

302, 575 

325, 888 

269,  572 

277,481 

Outer  Possessions . 

42, 442 

47, 233 

51, 857 

60, 762 

67,904 

58, 660 

71,971 

Horses: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3, 518 

3, 276 

3, 344 

3,072 

3, 388 

3, 640 

3, 998 

Outer  Possessions . 

783 

1,211 

*  989 

1,078 

2,255 

2,093 

2,375 

Hogs: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

79,443 

85,030 

107, 108 

112, 901 

107, 817 

100, 103 

111,  6*14 

Outer  Possessions . 

149, 781 

164, 820 

185,085 

251, 274 

262, 425 

150, 037 

227, 185 

174  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

COW  AND  BUFFALO  HIDES. 

The  following  tables  show  the  exports  of  cow  and  buffalo  hides 
since  1913  in  number  of  hides,  with  the  total  weights  and  the  average 
weights  in  the  footings: 


COW  HIDES. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

Number. 
397, 290 

Number. 
243, 788 
12,607 
16, 433 
9, 650 
7, 656 

Number. 
225, 254 
188, 464 
12, 050 

Number. 
143, 286 
323, 632 
34, 514 

Number. 
29, 738 
363, 172 
46,473 

Number. 

Number. 
325, 910 
582, 095 
46, 879 

Number. 
146,  .503 
166, 336 
2, 601 
400 
68, 250 
2,200 

United  States . 

300, 345 
2,650 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

19, 308 
9, 614 
835 
2, 976 
2,210 

France.” . 

1,650 

2,025 

127, 413 

Italy . 

Austria . 

Spain . 

2,000 

1, 100 

5,140 
17, 240 
34,  752 

Australia . 

3, 162 
5,739 
817 

8, 485 
9,  815 
3, 517 
67 

41,620 
Jl,  570 
331 
2, 495 
55, 950 
1,059 

30, 600 
7,863 
993 

Singapore . 

12,  857 
3, 330 

8, 827 

1, 224 

•  12,336 
1,860 

Penang . 

Japan . 

Canada . 

950 

4,274 

All  other . 

3,690 

991 

1, 145 

817 

686 

1,614 

Total . 

452, 110 

303, 176 

445,884 

511,967 

461, 963 

416, 020 

1, 126, 977 

445, 036 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 

Total  weight: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 
Average  weight: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 

418, 633 
33, 477 

273, 174 
30, 002 

406,  570 
39, 314 

465, 458 
46, 509 

423, 054 
38,  899 

403,  241 
12, 779 

1,  085,  71 1 
41,266 

Kilos. 

2, 032, 741 
163, 763 

4.85 
4. 91 

Kilos. 

1, 342, 901 
152,  229 

4.91 

5.07 

Kilos. 

1, 853, 636 
193, 272 

4.  55 
4.91 

Kilos. 

2, 132, 026 
239, 755 

4. 58 
5.15 

Kilos. 

1, 878, 459 
212,613 

4.44 

5.46 

Kilos. 

1, 611,697 
78, 246 

3. 99 
6. 12 

Kilos. 

4,  730, 177 
225, 640 

4. 35 
5. 48 

Kilos. 

2,078,619 

4.67 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

BUFFALO  HIDES. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

Netherlands . 

Number. 
290, 902 
1,454 
8, 372 
8, 913 
11,010 
1, 350 
11,684 
616 
500 
19, 039 
4,070 

Number. 
194, 573 
11,371 
25, 568 
5,516 
3,969 

Number. 
197, 412 
63, 652 
46, 121 

Number. 
108,067 
226, 166 
128, 212 

Number. 
12, 140 
217, 951 
112, 852 

Number. 

Number. 
404, 064 
107, 579 
127, 095 

Number. 
141, 364 
152,509 
34, 795 

United  States . 

113, 604 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

France.  T . 

12, 423 
2,950 

13, 801 

6, 500 

37,996 

300 

no 

29,640 
1, 350 

Italy . . . 

Austria . 

7, 920 
1,  535 
3,927 
6, 932 
3,130 

Spain . 

Other  European . 

2,996 

1,900 

Singapore . .” . 

14, 817 
3, 516 
35 

19, 439 
3,265 
2, 038 

8, 488 
2, 522 
11, 528 
2, 655 
1,269 

14, 589 
779 
17, 528 
323 
11,054 

35,680 
1,577 
14, 117 
3, 552 
9, 944 

Penang . 

Japan.” . 

Hongkong . 

All  other . 

2, 894 

1, 500 

4, 048 

4, 545 

7,612 

Total . 

360, 804 

265,961 

344, 974 

505,  533 

375, 905 

157,  S77 

742, 014 

372. 166 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 

Total  weight: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 
Average  weight: 

Java  and  Madoera 
Outer  Possessions 

263, 7S4 
97, 020 

187,810 
78, 151 

269, 122 
75,  852 

399, 107 
106, 426 

303, 70S 
72, 197 

110, 423 
47, 454 

5S6, 233 
155, 781 

Kilos. 

2, 801, 551 
1, 247,334 

10. 60 
12.  S5 

Kilos. 

2, 016, 712 
1, 024, 315 

10.  73 
13. 10 

Kilos. 

2, 733, 783 
964, 144 

lb.  15 
12. 71 

Kilos. 

3, 932,133 
1, 401, 138 

9.85 
13. 16 

Kilos. 

3, 143, 601 
933,974 

10.  35 
12. 93 

Kilos. 

1, 128, 6S3 
555, 343 

10. 20 
11.  70 

Kilos. 

5,752,139 

1, 993,  591 

9.  81 
12.80 

Kilos. 

3, 825, 827 

10.28 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

The  imports  of  hides  and  skins  into  the  Straits  Settlements  ports 
and  exports  from  the  same,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table  (1  picul=133J  pounds) : 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 


175 


Countries  from  which  im¬ 
ported. 


British  North  Borneo . 

Brunei . 

Sarawak . 

British  India  and  Burma . 

Hongkong . 

Federated  Malay  States . 

Non-Federated  Malay  States.. 

Other  British  possessions . 

China . 

French  Indo-China . 

Netherlands  Indies . 

Philippines . 

Siam . 

All  other . 

Total . 

Imported  into: 

Singapore . 

Penang . 

Malacca . 

Labuan . 


1919 

1920 

Countries  to  which  ex¬ 
ported. 

1919 

1920 

Piculs. 

Piculs . 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

1,755 

876 

United  Kingdom . 

26, 484 

23,789 

295 

238 

British  India  and  Burma . 

58 

662 

731 

Hongkong . 

150 

224 

10, 439 

13, 194 

Canada . 

1,079 

528 

21, 757 

31, 959 

Egypt . 

3,522 

5, 390 

5, 735 

5,701 

Other  British  possessions . 

385 

11 

3,237 

3, 211 

Belgium . 

185 

151 

7 

34 

France . 

5,208 

3,906 

32 

87 

Netherlands . 

159 

34 

5, 926 

4,814 

China . 

16 

30 

8, 678 

3,876 

Japan . 

1,108 

826 

261 

252 

Borneo . 

456 

33, 106 

16, 977 

United  States . 

2, 893 

1,355 

260 

120 

All  other . 

189 

723 

92, 150 

82,  070 

Total . 

41, 892 

36,967 

Exported  from: 

59, 631 

35,703 

Singapore . 

35, 706 

27, 920 

31,612 

45,836 

Penang . 

6, 187 

9,047 

164 

44 

743 

487 

There  are  several  tanneries  in  Penang  and  Singapore,  the  product 
of  which  is  consumed  locally. 


SHEEPSKINS. 

Sheepskins  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  of  a  poor  quality, 
being  papery  in  texture.  The  best  skins  come  from  the  highlands 
(Preanger  Regencies)  and  the  poorer  qualities  from  the  lowlands  of 
Java  and  Madoera  and  the  Outer  Possessions. 

Sheepskins  are  sold  by  measurement,  as  are  goatskins,  and  graded 
for  quality  in  firsts  and  seconds  in  sizes  from  100  centimeters  square 
to  70  centimeters  square,  and  below  70  centimeters  no  grading  for 
quality  is  done.  Most  of  the  skins  are  between  80  and  90  centimeters 
square.  A  fair  average  of  weight  is  145  pounds  to  the  hundred.  Sta¬ 
tistics  of  exports  are  not  shown  separately. 


GOAT  AND  KID  SKINS. 


Exports  of  goat  and  kid  skins,  by  countries,  for  the  period  1913- 
1919  were  as  follows : 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

19191 

Netherlands . 

Number. 
653, 893 
275,  281 

195, 960 

Number. 
361,045 
202, 375 
23, 694 
94, 045 
16,000 
107 
196 

Number. 

112, 458 
1, 725, 4S0 
53, 000 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 
125, 353 
2,595,951 
87,000 
280, 341 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

France . 

2,148,8^9 
533, 780 
63, 050 

2, 163, 042 
395, 230 

917, 150 

65, 000 

Belgium . 

Singapore . 

600 

9,900 

Penang . 

444 

Australia . 

4,300 

28,  894 
5,000 
10,  447 
1,008 

Canada . 

Japan . 

All  other. . . 

Totaj . 

Weight . 

Average  lots . 

20, 034 

1,925 

757 

738 

3, 133 

4,077 

1, 145, 612 

699, 387 

1,891.695 

2, 746, 407 

2, 565, 705 

1,028,099 

3, 102, 622 

Kilos. 
470, 197 
0.41 

Kilos. 

301,823 

0.43 

Kilos. 
750, 376 
0.40 

Kilos. 
1,031,168 
0. 38 

Kilos. 

952,  576 
0.37 

Kilos. 
379, 625 
0. 37 

Kilos. 
1,138, 507 
0.36 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


It  will  be  observed  that  during  the  above  period  the  average 
weight  of  the  skins  dropped  from  0.41  kilo  to  0.36  kilo  (1  kilo= 
2.204  pounds) . 


176  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Qualities. — Very  few  skins  were  produced  in  the  Outer  Posses¬ 
sions,  and  it  may  be  taken  that  the  whole  of  the  exports  are  from 
Java  and  Madoera.  The  best  qualities  come  from  “the  Preanger” 
or  mountain  residency,  which,  on  account  of  the  altitude,  produces 
a  skin  of  finer  grain,  but  very  little  heavier  than  those  of  the  low¬ 
lands. 

The  second  preference  is  for  skins  from  the  Residency  of  Pekalon- 
gan.  These  are  mostly  light  skins  with  a  big  spread  and  fine  hair 
and  with  a  grain  slightly  inferior  to  those  of  “  the  Preanger.” 

Goats  are  kept  by  the  agricultural  population  throughout  the 
islands  of  Java  and  Madoera  and  are  collected  through  the  same 
agencies  as  are  the  hides — the  small  shopkeeper,  who  takes  them  in 
trade,  and  the  Arab  traders — going  into  larger  parcels  through  the 
Chinese  and  Arab  jobbers,  and  finally  to  the  big  export  houses. 

Like  hides,  goatskins  are  not  sold  through  brokers,  but  are  handled 
by  exporters  on  firm  offers  from  abroad,  based  on  grades  established 
by  contact  with  the  world’s  markets. 

Grading  for  sizexis  done  on  the  basis  of  the  square  of  the  skin, 
running  from  100  centimeters  square  to  50  centimeters  square  in 
grades  of  10  centimeters.  The  average  runs  between  70  and  80  centi¬ 
meters  square. 

DEERSKINS. 

Deerskins  are  exported  almost  exclusively  from  the  Outer  Pos¬ 
sessions.  Most  of  the  exports  are  handled  through  Macassar,  but 
important  quantities  are  also  shipped  from  Bandjermasin,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  port  of  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Residency  of  Borneo,  and 
minor  quantities  from  other  Borneo  ports  and  from  Sumatra.  Ex¬ 
ports  for  the  period  1913-1919  were  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

Number. 
37, 738 
63, 066 
5,538 
4, 353 

Nuviber. 

673 

62, 210 

Number. 
8, 700 
107, 965 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

11,939 

88,169 

United  States . 

94, 605 
600 

113, 198 

65, 622 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

1, 401 
711 
17,304 

Japan . 

3, 640 
26, 067 

11, 120 
37,620 

10, 084 
33, 453 
296 

32,  779 
55, 059 

6, 390 
45, 698 
476 
72,340 
475 

Singapore . 

31, 715 

Penang . 

Hongkong . 

11, 980 
1,552 

All  other . 

1,005 

3, 186 

1, 194 

379 

452 

Total . 

143, 415 

85, 485 

147,  566 

144, 324 

157, 4S3 

166, 992 

225,487 

Weight . 

Kilos. 

244,211 

1.  70 

Kilos. 
151,578 
1.  77 

Kilos. 
259, 935 
1. 76 

Kilos. 
264, 177 
1.83 

Kilos. 
284, 679 
1.80 

Kilos. 
280, 315 

1.67 

Kilos. 
378, 584 

1.68 

Average  lots . 

The  average  number  of  skins  shipped  annually  during  the  period 
was  152,964,  the  returns  showing  a  gradual  increase,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  1914,  from  143,415  to  225,487.  .  ! 

Deerskins  are  brought  in  to  the  first  collection  points  in  the  in¬ 
terior  of  the  less  settled  islands  by  the  natives  who  live  in  the  forests. 
They  are  not,  primarily,  hunters  of  game,  but  may  be  collectors  of 
copal,  gutta-percha,  or  rattans.  The  market'  price  for  any  one  of 
these  products  being  relatively  high  may  draw  the  labor  away  from 
the  others,  although  this  is  less  marked  in  the  deerskin  trade  than 
that  of  the  other  forest  products. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS 

RATTANS. 


The  following  extract  regarding  rattans  is  by  Dr.  F.  W.  Fox¬ 
worthy,  research  officer  of  the  Forest  Department  of  the  Federated 
Malay  States: 

The  best  account  which  has  been  written  of  the  rattans  of  the  Malay  Penin¬ 
sula  is  that  by  H.  N.  Ridley,  F.  R.  S.,  in  the  Agricultural  Bulletin  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  and  the  -Federated  Malay  States.  (Vol.  II,  1903,  pp.  127-160.) 
These  plants  are  erect  in  their  early  youth  until  they  attain  a  height  of  several 
feet,  after  which  the  stem  needs  support,  which  is  secured  by  the  aid  of  a  long 
flagellum  armed  with  hooked  thorns,  by  means  of  which  the  plant  clings  to 
tree  trunks  or  other  supports. 

Rattan  stems  attain  great  length,  sometimes  more  than  200  yards,  and  are 
among  the  longest  plants  known.  In  plants  with  very  long  intermedes  the 
stems  are  sometimes  used  for  walking  sticks.  The  best  known  of  these  are 
the  Malacca  canes,  which  are  produced  by  Calavms  scipionum ,  and  probably 
by  a  few  other  species.  In  certain  forms  of  rattans  the  whole  stem  is  used. 
These  forms  are  usually  of  small  size  and  are  used  in  the  weaving  of  furniture. 
In  many  other  forms  of  larger  size  the  stem  is  split,  and  often  only  the  harder 
part  of  the  stem  is  used.  The  lightness,  elasticity,  and  strength  of  rattan 
render  it  unequaled  for  certain  classes  of  work.  The  working  of  rattan  has 
been  an  industry  in  Singapore  and  Hongkong  for  many  years.  During  the  past 
generation  the  industry  has  extended  to  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

The  number  of  forms  of  rattans  recognized  is  considerable,  and  much  con¬ 
fusion  exists  with  regard  to  the  common  names.  Ridley  has  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  there  may  be  as  many  as  three  recognized  names  for  a  single 
rattan,  the  first  being  the  one  known  to  the  collector  in  the  jungle,  the  second 
the  name  used  by  the  buyer  at  Singapore,  and  the  third  the  one  used  when  the 
rattan  is  exported  to  Europe  or  America.  Further,  in  the  article  by  Ridley, 
common  names  are  given  for  about  40  species  of  rattan  found  in  the  forests 
of  the  peninsula.  Besides  these  there  are  given  the  names  used  by  the  trade 
for  a  considerable  number  of  grades.  Nearly  300  species  of  rattan  have  been 
described.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  there  exists  a  considerable  number  of 
species  not  yet  described.  Certain  products  besides  the  flexible  stem  are  occa¬ 
sionally  derived  from  the  rattan  plant.  In  some  cases  the  leaves  are  used  as 
thatch  for  temporary  shelters  in  the  jungle.  A  number  of  forms  have  the  seed 
surrounded  by  an  edible  pulp.  This  fruit  is  sweet  and  is  popular  with  Malays 
and  Sakais.  In  some  species  of  Dsemonorops  the  scales  of  the  fruit  contain 
a  red  resin,  known  as  dragon’s  blood,  which  is  used  in  medicine  and  in  various 
arts  as  a  coloring  matter.  (See  Ridley,  Agr.  Bull.  S.  S.  and  F.  M.  S.) 

Rattans  are  occasionally  cultivated,  both  in  the  peninsula  and  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies.  It  is  said  that  the  cultivation  is  most  common  in  certain  parts 
of  southern  Borneo  and  the  Palembang  region  of  Sumatra.  It  is  also  stated 
that  some  of  the  better  forms  of  rattan  will  furnish  stems  suitable  for  cutting 
within  6  to  15  years  after  planting.  Details  of  the  system  of  planting  used  in 
Borneo  are  given  in  Volume  I  of  Heyne’s  De  Nuttige  Planten  Van  Neder- 
landsch-Indie.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  natural  supply  of  rattans 
will  decrease  in  the  future  because  of  the  increased  demand,  and  because  it 
is  the  native  practice  in  many  places  to  cut  the  palm  without  any  adequate 
care  for  its  reproduction.  This  will  probably  necessitate  the  establishment  of 
a  number  of  rattan  plantations  in  the  future; 

The  standards  by  which  commercial  rattans  are  judged  are  various  and 
involved.  They  depend  upon  the  appearance,  uniformity  in  color  and  texture, 

177 


178  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


and  the  size  and  purpose  for  which  the  rattan  is  intended.  In  general,  rattans 
which  are  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter,  uniform  in  size  and  color,  and  possess¬ 
ing  a  hard  outer  circle  are  the  most  valuable.  These  rattans  may  be  used 
entire,  or  they  may  be  put  through  various  machines  to  obtain  what  is  known 
as  rattan  cane  of  various  sizes.  The  cane  is  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  quite  a 
number  of  sizes,  varying  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter, 
are  recognized.  These  different  sizes  are  used  for  special  manufactures,  and 
the  better  grades  are  shipped  to  the  European  and  American  markets.  Some 
of  the  inferior  grades  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  woven  furniture  in 
Singapore  and  some  are  shipped  to  Hongkong  for  similar  purposes.  The 
manufacturers  use  rattan  for  making  clips,  baskets,  chairs,  corsets,  mats,  mat¬ 
tresses,  bent-wood  furniture,  and  fancy  rattan  furniture.  The  better  the  color 
of  any  rattan  the  better  the  quality  and  the  more  expensive  it  is. 

Exports  of  rattan  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  for  1913  and 
1918  to  1921,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  i 

19211 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
4, 238 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
4, 355 
414 
952 
72 

Metric  tons. 
1,070 
14 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

153 

2 

95 

Great  Britain . 

3, 178 
17, 987 
344 

Germany . 

452 

762 

France.' . 

Scandinavia . 

87 

194 

19 

25, 079 
5,565 
762 
176 
664 
180 

6 

Other  European . 

151 
30, 380 
2,  903 
682 
33 
129 
468 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

20, 658 
2, 949 
260 
370 
611 
351 

Hongkong . 7 . 

China. . . ‘ . 

Japan . 

22 

51 

7 

Australia . 

62 

81 

All  other . 

Total . 

60,  559 

25, 441 

38, 432 

1, 622 

1,000 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

101 
60, 458 

200 
25, 241 

1,100 
37, 332 

Outer  Possessions . 

*Java  and  Madoera  only. 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  bulk  of  the  exports  goes  to  Singapore. 
But  small  quantities  find  their  way  to  the  Java  market  cities, 
although  the  production  is  all  in  the  Outer  Possessions  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies. 

Rattans  grow  wild  in  the  forests  of  all  the  islands  and  are  cut 
by  the  natives,  who,  when  the  prices  of  guttas,  or  copal,  or  damar 
are  relatively  high,  turn  their  efforts  to  those  products.  The  cutting 
of  rattans  is  done  in  the  forests  nearest  transportation,  and  when 
the  product  is  ready  for  local  markets  it  is  taken  to  the  nearest  port 
and  sold  to  the  Chinese  or  Arab  dealers,  who  forward  it  to  the  larger 
shipping  centers  or  direct  to  Singapore.  Macassar  is  the  principal 
market  m  the  Netherlands  Indies  making  direct  shipments  to  Europe 
and  America.  Pontianak,  Bandjermasin,  and  Samarinda,  in  Borneo, 
and  Palembang,  Djambi,  and  Padang,  in  Sumatra,  are  the  principal 
central  collection  points  within  the  colony.  The  accompanying  map 
shows  the  principal  ports  of  export  for  rattans. 

GRADES  OF  RATTAN. 

Mr.  K.  Heyne,  curator  of  the  Museum  of  Economic  Botany  at 
Buitenzorg,  a  noted  authority  on  rattans,  says  the  best  rattan  pro¬ 
duced  is  the  “  segah  ”  from  Palembang.  This  runs  from  three- 
eighths  to  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  is  very  smooth  and  regular, 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


179 


and  has  an  even  yellow  color.  This  segah  grows  in  many  of  the 
islands  of  the  archipelago,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Heyne,  has  reached 
its  highest  perfection  in  southeast  Sumatra. 

One  of  Padang’s  principal  grades  is  the  “  segah  ”  or  “  sago,”  from 
the  Ment'awei  Islands.  This  is  a  highly  polished,  pliable  rattan,  small 
to  medium  in  size,  and  is  thoroughly  cleaned  before  shipping.  It 
is  graded  into  three  qualities,  according  to  appearance  and  supple¬ 
ness.  An  inferior  segah  or  sago  is  produced  on  the  mainland,  but 
less  abundantly. 

Much  of  the  large  quantity  of  rattan  shipped  from  Padang  is 
called  “  pakoe  ”  and  comes  from  the  forests  of  the  mainland  of  Su¬ 
matra.  Other  grades  are  the  “  ayer  ”  and  “  getah,”  from  the  forests 
near  Sasak  and  Indrapoera,  in  the  Residency  of  Sumatra  West  Coast, 
and  “  batu,”  the  most  inferior  of  all  the  grades. 

In  Macassar  the  prime  qualities  are  “tohiti”  and  “saboetan.” 
Tohiti  rattans  are  shipped  in  4-meter  lengths,  bundled  without  bend¬ 
ing.  They  are  sorted  in  various  thicknesses,  the  usual  grade  sizes 
being  8  to  14  millimeters,  14  to  18,  18  to  25,  25  to  30,  and  30  and  up. 
Sometimes  they  are  ordered  from  8  to  25  millimeters.  As  for  qual¬ 
ity,  they  are  graded  into  No.  1  and  No.  2.  No.  1  goes  to  the  United 
States  and  contains  all  the  perfect  rods,  with  a  few  having  minor 
defects,  while  No.  2  contains  only  defective  rods  and  goes  to  Europe, 
British  India,  and  China.  Tohiti  rattan  is  very  hard  and  has  a 
reddish  core,  but  is  yellow  on  the  outside. 

Saboetan  is  graded  for  size  from  9  to  14  and  14  to  18  millimeters, 
with  the  larger  sizes  going  into  a  third  grade.  Occasionally  orders 
are  seen  for  a  grade  of  from  5  to  9  millimeters. 

Oemoeloe,  or  gorontalo,  looks  much  like  tohiti  on  the  surface,  but 
the  core  is  white  and  it  is  a  soft  rattan,  while  tohiti  is  hard.  It  is 
graded  for  size  and  quality  the  same  as  tohiti. 

Borneo  segah  is  a  larger  variety,  running  from  15  millimeters  up. 
It  is  graded  according  to  color  into  No.  1  and  No.  2,  the  first  grade 
being  white  and  yellowish  and  the  second  containing  the  red  stock. 
It  comes  in  long  pieces  and  is  bent  double  for  packing. 

Borneo  soloettoep  is  somewhat  similar  to  tohiti,  but  has  more  of  a 
glaze.  It  is  graded  the  same  for  size.  This  quality  is  said  to  be 
sold  on  the  Singapore  market  as  Sarawak. 

Datoe  is  shipped  in  one  grade  only.  It  is  from  4  to  7  millimeters 
in  size,  of  a  reddish  color,  and  very  strong.  The  Allies  used  this 
grade  for  shrapnel  baskets  during  the  war. 

Kandarie  boetoeng  is  very  similar  in  fiber  to  datoe,  but  is  white. 
In  size  it  runs  from  5  to  9  millimeters.  It  goes  to  Europe  principally, 
and  is  the  grade  from  which  the  carpet  beaters  are  made. 

39878°— 23- - 13 


180  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


EXPORTS  OF  RATTAN. 


Exports  of  rattans  in  1919,  by  ports,  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 


Index  No. 

Ports. 

Metric 

tons. 

Index  No. 

Ports. 

Metric 

tons. 

1 . 

Soerabaya . 

705 

20. . 

Laboen  Balik . 

443 

2 . 

Batavia . 

255 

21 . 

Siak  Sri  Indrapoera . 

416 

3 . 

Semarang . 

140 

22 . 

Poloppo . ". . 

363 

4 . 

Macassar . 

9, 182 

23 . 

Kota  Baroe . 

353 

5 . 

Palembang . 

6' 009 

24 . 

Ternate . 

322 

6 . 

Bandjermasin . 

2, 779 

25 . 

Kendari . 

322 

7 . 

Pontianak . 

2,551 

26 . 

Prigi  Radja . 

320 

8 . 

Samarinda . 

2, 252 

27 . 

Koealoe . 

309 

9 . 

Djambi . 

1,757 

28 . 

Bagan  Api  Api . 

279 

10 . 

Moeara  Sebaq . 

992 

29 . 

Madjene . 

229 

11 . 

Gorontalo ..." . 

919 

30 . 

Pakanbaroe . 

184 

12 . 

Sampit . 

877 

31 . 

Menado . 

179 

13 . 

Padang . 

762 

32 . 

Tand  jeongtirera . 

179 

14 . 

PoelaiT  Moeda . 

737 

33 . 

MaliU . 

175 

15 . 

Tandjoengredeb . 

714 

34 . 

Sinabang . 

132 

16 . 

Tandjeongselor . 

677 

35 . 

Koemai  7 . 

105 

17 . 

Rengat.  .7 . 

580 

36 . 

Parigi . 

97 

18 . 

Poelaukidjang . 

485 

All  other . 

1,182 

19 . 

Tanahgrogotri . 

467 

38,422 

Of  the  total  imports  of  rattans  into  Singapore,  but  8  per  cent  came 
from  the  territories  included  in  British  Malaya,  the  principal  part 
coming  from  Dutch  territory. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  from  the  Straits  Settlements 
for  1918, 1919,  and  1920,  by  countries : 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
5,198 
2,755 
1, 424 

Metric  tons. 
4,480 
4,961 

Metric  tons. 
5,  881 

Great  Britain . 

4,637 

2,681 

129 

France . 

'776 

Belgium . 

279 

Germany . 

765 

Scandinavia . 

90 

103 

Italy . 

219 

449 

Netherlands . 

146 

490 

Ceylon . 

51 

66 

63 

British  India . 

1,552 

1,  681 

•  1,749 
6,419 
383 

Hongkong . 

3;  764 
192 

5;  617 

1, 147 

China . 

French  Indo-China . 

222 

331 

155 

Canada . 

129  * 

1,  058 

390 

Australia . 

294 

'307 

189 

New  Zealand . 

29 

44 

154 

Japan . 

1,027 

619 

1,172 

618 

All  other . 

'  4S3 

689 

Total . 

17, 256 

22,857 

25,944 

GUTTA-PERCHA  AND  GUTTA JOOL ATON G. 

The  principal  sources  of  supplies  of  gutta-percha  are  in  Borneo  and 
Sumatra,  although  there  is  a  small  production  on  the  Malay  Penin¬ 
sula.  The  trade  is  concentrated  in  Singapore  and  is  routed  from  the 
producers  to  the  British  export  houses  through  the  Chinese  business 
organization. 

The  following  figures  show  the  export  of  guttajoolatong  from  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  by  countries,  for  the  years  1913,  1916,  1917, 
1918,  and  1919  (1  kilo=2.204  pounds) : 


FOREST  PRODUCTS 


181 


CD 

1—1 

6 

w 

fa 


182 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Countries. 

1913 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

United  States . 

Kilos. 

1, 263, 837 
438, 770 
657, 585 
1, 495, 937 
14,  231,  696 
59,  539 
110,  420 
84, 605 

Kilos. 

1.  504, 013 
4, 917 
447, 705 

Kilos. 

4, 550,  820 

Kilos. 
671, 255 

Kilos. 

1, 897, 204 
10,205 
23,373 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

2ii,  585 

Germany . 

Straits  Settlements . 

8,  379,  457 
18,  370 
28,  456 

4, 015, 121 

2, 450, 312 

5, 310,  363 
4,361 

Australia . 

France . 

Belgium . 

Japan . 

7,215 

8,790 

61,  222 
4,  213 

55,800 

3,420 

All  other . 

126 

Total . 

18,  342,  515 

10, 398, 923 

8, 777,  526 

3, 187,  002 

7,  304,  726 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

17,  523 
18, 324,  992 

24, 387 
10,  374,  536 

67,  201 
8, 710,  325 

88,508 
3,  098,  494 

42, 166 
7,  262,  560 

Outer  Possessions . 

In  1917  there  were  received  at  Singapore  from  the  British  posses¬ 
sions  in  Borneo  3,986  metric  tons  of  gutta  inferior;  in  1918,  2,684 
tons;  and  in  1919,  3,843  tons.  Gutta  inferior  includes  guttajoola- 
tong,  which  is  not  a  gutta  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term, 
and  various  low-grade  guttas. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  gutta  inferior  from  the 
Straits  Settlements  for  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries: 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
4,968 
66 

Metric  tons. 
857 

Metric  tons. 
6,052 

Metric  tons. 
3,279 
232 

Great  Britain . 

102 

'237 

Australia . 

26 

18 

6 

30 

Canada . 

73 

15 

49 

Belgium . 

6 

France . 

51 

10 

11 

5 

Japan . 

169 

148 

208 

57 

All  other . 

15 

3 

50 

11 

Total . 

5,295 

1,211 

6,579 

3,669 

Guttajoolatong  is  used  in  the  United  States  for  mixing  with  rubber 
for  the  manufacture  of  various  rubber  products  and  as  a  base  for 
chewing  gum.  It  has  a  rubber  content,  while  gutta-percha,  gutta 
hang  kang,  and  the  other  guttas  known  to  the  trade  have  a  gutta 
content.  It  is  gathered  by  the  natives  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra  from 
jungle  trees  and  finds  its  way  to  the  market  through  Chinese  chan¬ 
nels,  Singapore  being  the  principal  market,  although  Soerabaya  and 
Batavia  do  some  direct  business  with  the  world’s  markets. 

Like  all  other  forest  gums  it  is  carelessly  gathered  and  has  no 
reliable  grade,  but  some  small  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  the 
natives  by  the  first  buyers  to  induce  them  to  bring  in  a  clean  product. 
The  unevenness  of  grades  involves  a  large  element  of  risk  in  pur¬ 
chasing  from  the  European  exporters  in  Singapore,  who  handle  the 
bulk  of  the  export  trade. 

COPAL  AND  DAMAR. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  an  official  publication  of  the 
Netherlands  East  Indian  Government  relating  to  copal  and  damar: 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  only  the  European  trader  can  clearly  dis¬ 
tinguish  copal  from  damar ;  the  Asiatic  shipper  can  not  It  therefore  frequently 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


183 


happens  that  the  officials  who  compile  the  statistics  are  misled.  On  that  ac¬ 
count  it  is  impossible  to  give,  even  approximately,  the  correct  figures  where  the 
proportion  of  one  kind  to  another  is  concerned. 

The  figures  for  damar  undoubtedly  include  a  great  deal  of  copal.  If,  how¬ 
ever,  by  adding  both  together  we  consider  the  annual  exports  to  the  various 
countries  or  ports  of  destination,  we  can  form  a  good  idea  of  how  this  article 
is  distributed  over  the  markets  of  the  world. 

It  is  absolutely  impossible  to  obtain  reliable  particulars  from  the  official 
statistics,  for  the  reason  that  several  ports  export  damar  as  well  as  copal. 
Generally  speaking,  damar  is  supplied  chiefly  by  tbe  western  part  of  the  archi¬ 
pelago,  i.  e.,  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  while  copal  comes  from  the  eastern  part — 
Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  and  New  Guinea.  Yet  Palembang  and  Pontianak,  al¬ 
though  belonging  to  the  damar  districts,  produce  copal  as  well,  and  some  of 
the  eastern  districts  also  produce  |amar.  vil/<y 

The  principal  centers  for  thj^xpor^itionmf  damar  are  Batavia  and  Padang. 
Copal,  on  the  other  hand,  is  chiefly  shi}ppe:d  froih  Macassar  and  Ternate. 

Mr.  Heyne,  the  best  authority  on  the  forest  products  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies,  stated  that  the  infallible  test  is  to  hold  a  piece  in 
the  hand  until  it  has  time  to  reach  the  temperature  of  the  body,  and 
if  it  then  sticks  to  the  hand  it  is  damar,  but  if  it  drops  it  is  copal. 
He  further  stated  that  the  demand  controls  the  supply.  Any  quan¬ 
tity  required  can  be  procured;  but  if  the  market  for  rattans  goes 
up  to  a  point  where  labor  can  be  more  profitably  used  in  collecting 
that  forest  product  the  production  of  copal  and  damar  will  cease. 

SHIPMENTS  OF  COPAL. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  copal  as  given  in  the 
official  returns  for  1913,  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries,  the  re¬ 
turns  for  1920  being  for  Java  and  Madoera  only : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  i 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
2,422 
185 
1,091 
423 
93 
2,840 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,219 
2,043 
1,528 

Metric  tons. 
328 
13 
72 

United  States . 

1,310 

Great  Britain . 

Germany  and  Austria . 

0  ther  European . 

10 

1,860 

303 

143 

28 

2,588 

203 

90 

7 

Singapore . 

Japan . .  . 

Australia . 

10 

16 

All  other- . 

1 

Total . 

7,080 

3,626 

7,706 

414 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

104 

6,976 

158 

3,468 

363 

7,343 

Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Copal  is  the  product  of  the  tree  Agathis  alba  (Foxworthy),  which 
is  found  in  the  Philippines,  in  Borneo  and  the  islands  to  the  east, 
and  in  the  Residency  of  Palembang,  in  Sumatra.  The  most  valuable 
variety  is  found  in  deposits  long  buried  under  the  ground,  having 
exuded  from  the  roots  of  trees  of  past  ages,  but  much  the  larger 
part  is  procured  from  living  trees  by  tapping.  There  is  no  standard 
grading.  It  comes  to  the  market  cities  in  a  dirty  condition  in  all 
qualities,  from  soft  to  hard,  and  in  many  colors.  There  it  is  cleaned 
by  chipping  out  all  foreign  matter  and  graded  according  to  the  re¬ 
quirements  of  the  various  world  markets. 


184 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


'IGffI 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


185 


Most  of  this  product  is  cleaned  at  Macassar  and  Singapore,  al¬ 
though  Ambon  and  Ternate  prepare  important  quantities  for  export. 

The  imports  of  copal  into  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1919  were  as 
follows  (1  Straits  dollar=$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.)  :  British  North 
Borneo,  S$18,028 ;  Sarawak,  S$32,280;  Non-Federated  Malay  States,  . 
S$6,307 ;  Dutch  Borneo,  S$89,855;  Celebes  and  Moluccas,  S$678,723; 
Sumatra,  S$40,225;  other  Dutch  islands,  S$24,083;  Philippine  Is¬ 
lands,  S$78,709;  all  others,  S$935;  total,  S$969,145. 

There  is  no  copal  produced  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  all  the 
import  is  into  Singapore.  The  Non-Federated  Malay  States  of  - 
Kelantan  and  Trengganoe  produce  small  quantities,  as  do  British 
North  Borneo  and  Sarawak,  but  the  chief  source  of  imports  is  Celebes 
and  the  Moluccas.  Through  Singapore’s  organization  of  Chinese 
merchants  in  Macassar  and  its  hinterland  a  considerable  quantity  of 
copal  is  carried  past  the  Dutch  market  cities  to  Singapore,  where 
it  is  cleaned  and  graded  by  the  Chinese  and  sold  to  the  exporters. 
Dutch  merchants  are,  however,  handling  the  bulk  of  this  trade,  the 
markets  being  Macassar  and  Soerabaya. 

The  exports  of  copal  in  1919  were  as  follows:  United  Kingdom, 
S$560,230;  British  India  and  Burma,  S$5,227 ;  Australia,  S$17,502; 
New  Zealand,  S$l,307 ;  France,  S$115,731;  Italy,  S$4,704;  Nether¬ 
lands,  S$29,850;  Japan,  S$23,519;  United  States,  S$684,607 ;  all 
other  countries,  S$2,792;  total,  S$l,445,469.  The  United  States  took 
47  per  cent,  the  United  Kingdom  39  per  cent,  and  France  8  per  cent, 
the  balance  scattering. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  copal  from  the  Straits 
Settlements  for  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries : 


United  States 
Great  Britain. 
France . 


Italy . 

Netherlands 


Germany.... 
British  India 

Canada . 

Australia.... 


Japan..., 
All  other. 


Total 


Countries. 


1918 

1919 

1920 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

2,221 

2,305 

3,099 

235 

1,625 

777 

366 

25 

10 

190 

137 

32 

33 

22 

13 

16 

129 

141 

47 

50 

142 

47 

36 

2 

4 

9 

2,917 

4,554 

4,242 

The  above  figures  show  to  some  extent  the  large  part  the  United 
States  plays  in  the  trade. 


SHIPMENTS  OF  DAMAR. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  damar  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  as  given  in  the  official  returns  for  1913,  1918,  1919, 


186  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


and  1920,  by  countries,  the  returns  for  1920  being  for  Java  and 
Madoera  only : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1,904 
1,238 
850 
541 
285 
4,679 
175 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,262 
3, 162 
992 

Metric  tons. 
231 
1,269 
133 
21 
72 
15 

United  States . 

3,438 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Other  European . 

226 

4,334 

107 

7 

257 

Singapore . . 

2,923 

14 

287 

85 

Penang . 

Japan . 

All  other . 

321 

31 

Total . 

9,993 

6,747 

10,347 

1,772 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2,199 

7,794 

1,057 

5,690 

2,766 

7,581 

Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  imports  of  damar  into  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1919,  in 
Straits  dollars,  were  as  follows  (1  Straits  dollar =$0.5678  mint  par 
U.  S.)  :  British  North  Borneo,  S$149,383;  Sarawak,  S$93,330;  Brit¬ 
ish  India  and  Burma,  S$l,100;  Federated  Malay  States,  S$20,126; 
Non-Federated  Malay  States,  S$80,617 ;  Dutch  Borneo,  S$225,482; 
Celebes  and  Moluccas,  S$140,709;  Java,  S$14,500;  Sumatra, 
S$87,848;  other  Dutch  islands,  S$58,814;  Philippine  Islands, 
S$40,253;  Siam,  S$145,743;  and  all  others,  S$l,342;  total, 
S$l,059,247,  of  which  S'$l ,052,965  was  received  at  Singapore  and 
S$6,282  at  Penang. 

The  damar  gathered  in  the  Federated  and  Non-Federated  Malay 
States  is  not  considered  to  be  first  class,  and  that  from  Sarawak  and 
British  North  Borneo  is  of  a  poor  grade.  All  sorts  of  qualities  come 
from  various  sources  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  being  generally  of 
a  better  grade  than  that  from  the  British  possessions.  The  whole 
trade  in  Singapore  is  small,  the  bulk  of  the  business  being  concen¬ 
trated  at  Batavia.  The  import  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who 
clean  and  grade  it  for  export  according  to  size  and  color  and  sell 
it  to  the  exporting  houses. 

The  exports  of  damar  from  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1919,  in 
Straits  dollars,  were  as  follows:  United  Kingdom,  S$258,508;  Brit¬ 
ish  India  and  Burma,  S$342,659;  Ceylon,  S$8.191;  Australia, 
S$15,050;  France,  S$49,014;  Italy,  S$9,240;  Netherlands,  S$l,025; 
Japan,  S$51,499;  United  States,  S$459,117 ;  and  all  others,  S$25,776; 
total,  S$l,220,079,  of  which  S$l,202,606  was  shipped  from  Singapore 
and  S$l7,473  from  Penang. 

The  United  States  took  37  per  cent;  British  India  and  Burma, 
28  per  cent;  the  United  Kingdom,  21  per  cent;  and  continental 
Europe,  5  per  cent.  The  first  grades  go  largely  to  the  United  States. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  exports  of  damar  from  the 
Straits  Settlements  for  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries : 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


3  87 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
1,261 

Metric  tons. 
1,333 

Metric  tons. 
2,137 

Great  Britain . 

140 

825 

'347 

France . 

155 

112 

246 

Italy . 

25 

20 

Netherlands . 

1 

17 

Germany . 

45 

British  India . 

2, 085 

3, 726 

2,532 

Canada . 

5 

Australia . 

49 

30 

38 

Japan . 

57 

97 

72 

All  other .  . 

145 

326 

365 

Total . 

3,922 

6,470 

5,  799 

GRADING  OF  DAMAR. 


From  a  Netherlands  East  Indian  Government  publication  the  fol¬ 
lowing  statement  is  made  regarding  damar: 

Sumatra  damar,  as  it  is  called  in  the  trade,  differs  from  Borneo  damar, 
which,  as  a  rule,  is  slightly  cheaper.  When  broken  the  former  shows  an  even 
color  on  the  plane  of  fracture,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the  surface 
glitters  on  account  of  the  many  minute  air  bubbles  it  contains ;  nor  is  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  two  products  identical.  The  damar  of  the  Mo¬ 
luccas  resembles  in  appearance  the  product  of  Borneo.  It  is  said  that  some 
damar  trees  spontaneously  exude  the  rosin,  while  others  must  be  tapped. 

Batavia  is  the  principal  center  for  the  damar  trade  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies,  as  the  Sumatra  grades  are  marketed  at  that  city, 
while  Macassar  is  almost  equally  important.  The  cleaning  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  Arabs,  and  Europeans  in  Batavia  and  of 
European  houses  in  Macassar,  Celebes,  and  Padang,  Sumatra.  Con¬ 
siderable  quantities  of  the  exports  go  to  Singapore. 

Damar  is  graded  according  to  what  is  called  the  Batavia  assort¬ 
ment,  including  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  ranging  from  the  size  of  an  egg 
to  small  peas,  and  is  packed  loose  in  cases  of  136  pounds  net,  con¬ 
taining  10  per  cent  A,  10  per  cent  B,  30  per  cent  C,  22  per  cent  D,  and 
28  per  cent  E.  This  assortment  goes  to  the  United  States  and  to 
Holland  principally,  while  such  damar  as  can  not  be  included  in  the 
Batavia  assortment  goes  to  England,  Germany,  and  Holland. 

A  Padang  exporter  said  that  he  was  at  a  loss  to  know  why  Ameri¬ 
can  buyers  required  such  exact  proportions  and  then  put  them  all  in 
one  case  without  separating  them,  as  they  were  bound  to  break  into 
smaller  particles  en  route. 

GUM  BENZOE  OR  BENJAMIN. 


The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  gum  benzoe  or  benjamin 
from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  for  1913,  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by 
countries,  returns  for  1920  being  for  J ava  and  Madoera  only : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

3 

5 

4 

4 

Netherlands . 

27 

19 

Great  Britian . 

4 

France . 

1 

Straits  Settlements . 

1,639 

989 

1,784 

1 

Japan . 

2 

1 

1 

6 

Total . .* . 

1,670 

997 

1, 813 

10 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

8 

9 

Outer  Possessions . 

1,670 

989 

1,804 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


188  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Gum  benzoe  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  perfume,  for  incense, 
and  the  benzoic  acid  extracted  from  it  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 
The  best  grade  is  produced  in  Siam,  the  second  quality  In  Tapanoeli, 
Sumatra,  and  a  very  inferior  quality  comes  from  Palembang,  Su¬ 
matra.  There  is  considerable  interchange  of  this  product  between 
Palembang  and  Tapanoeli  by  the  Chinese,  who  level  the  grades  to 
some  extent  before  shipping.  Shipments  of  gum  benzoe  go  almost 
entirely  to  Singapore,  whence  it  is  exported  to  the  world’s  markets. 

Exports  of  gum  benzoe  or  benjamin  from  British  Malaya  for 
1918,  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries,  were  as  follows : 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
32 

Metric  tons. 

Great  Britain . 

107 

156 

93 

France . 

48 

275 

British  India . 

648 

955 

576 

Hongkong . 

16 

14 

38 

Australia . 

74 

3 

Japan . 

1 

3 

2 

All  other . 

168 

127 

286 

Total . 

1,  062 

1,562 

998 

CUTCH. 


The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  cutch  for  1918  and  1919 
from  the  Netherlands  Indies  and  for  1920  from  Java  and  Madoera 
only: 


Countries. 

1918  • 

1919 

1920 1 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

1 

52 

Netherlands . 

172 

51 

Great  Britain . 

467 

Norway . 

240 

35 

Singapore . 

308 

788 

Japan . 

204 

2,077 

Australia . 

38 

7 

i 

All  other . 

15 

Total . 

805 

3,547 

104 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

263 

497 

Outer  Possessions . 

542 

3,050 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

Practically  all  of  the  above  is  from  Pontianak,  western  Borneo, 
where  there  is  one  factory. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  cutch  from  the  Straits 
Settlements  for  1918, 1919,  and  1920,  by  countries : 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

13 

485 

1,174 

Great  Britain . 

25 

486 

369 

Egypt . 

162 

27 

48 

9 

Hongkong . 

771 

705 

708 

Australia" . 

20 

14 

45 

Japan . 

232 

371 

44 

French  Indo-China . 

313 

212 

All  other . 

5 

54 

132 

Total . 

1, 568 

2,375 

2  481 

/ 

FOREST  PRODUCTS 


189 


USES  OF  CUTCH. 

As  is  shown  in  the  exports  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  to 
Singapore,  a  large  part  of  these  Straits  Settlements  exports  are 
reexports.  The  principal  production  district  in  British  Malaya  is 
Brunei. 

The  following  extracts  relating  to  mangrove  cutch  and  its  manu¬ 
facture  are  from  a  report  by  American  Consul  George  M.  Hanson, 
British  North  Borneo : 

Mangrove  cutch  has  been  employed  hitherto  almost  exclusively  for  tanning 
purposes.  Its  availability  for  use  in  dyeing,  in  much  the  same  way  as  gambier, 
etc.,  has  attracted  attention,  as  the  demand  for  cutch  in  other  forms  has  mate¬ 
rially  increased. 

The  mangrove  is  found  in  jungles  on  swampy  ground  along  the  seashore  and 
about  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  all  the  countries  of  the  oriental  Tropics. 

Kinds  of  mangrove  in  Borneo. — There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  mangrove 
in  Borneo.  The  ordinary  kind  is  known  by  the  native  Malay  name  “  bakau,” 
and  that  name  is  also  applied  to  the  extract  of  the  bark.  The  other  kind  is 
called  “tungah,”  also  a  native  name.  Tungah  is  decidedly  superior  to  bakau, 
as  the  bark  produces  a  superior  quality  and  a  greater  amount  of  extract. 
Cutch  made  from  tungah  is  more  valuable  for  dyeing  purposes.  It  sells  for  a 
much  higher  price  than  that  made  from  bakau  mangrove. 

The  supply  of  mangrove  trees  in  Borneo,  as  well  as  in  the  Netherlands  Indies 
and  other  tropical  countries,  is  practically  inexhaustible. 

How  the  cutch  is  manufactured. — The  manufacturing  process  is  exceedingly 
simple,  although  some  features  are  kept  secret. 

The  freshly  gathered  bark  is  tied  with  rattan  in  small  bundles,  weighing  10  or 
15  pounds,  and  boiled  in  vats  until  most  of  the  soluble  matter  has  been  ex¬ 
tracted.  evidenced  by  the  density  of  the  resultant  decoction.  Concentration  by 
evaporation  is  effected  in  the  same  vacuum  apparatus  as  is  used  ordinarily  for 
refining  sugar.  When  the  desired  consistency  is  obtained  and  the  water  present 
does  not  exceed  25  per  cent,  the  thick  residue  is  drawn  off  in  a  plastic  state. 
It  is  packed  in  bags  for  short-distance  shipments  and  in  boxes  for  trans¬ 
portation  to  America  or  Europe.  During  the  cooling  process  it  hardens  until  it 
resembles  resin.  Formerly  the  bark  was  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  even 
ground,  before  boiling,  but  this  treatment  has  been  abandoned.  The  additional 
extract  secured  does  not  cover  the  trouble  and  expense  of  crushing  or  grinding. 
The  bark  when  tied  in  bundles  can  be  more  easily  handled.  After  boiling  it  is 
also  in  a  convenient  shape  to  be  fed  into  furnaces  as  fuel  after  being  thoroughly 
dried. 

TANNING  MATERIALS. 

By  Dr.  F.  W.  Foxworthy,  Forest  Department,  Federated  Malay  States. 

There  is  very  little  tanning  done  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  but  there 
are  several  tanneries  in  Singapore  and  Penang.  Formerly  there  was 
a  good  deal  of  gambier  produced,  but  little  of  it  is  grown  now,  except 
in  Johore.  Gambier  has  practically  dropped  out  of  the  trade  returns. 
The  mangrove  swamps  are  extensively  used  for  firewood  production, 
but  there  are  no  cutch  works.  Occasionally  the  bark  is  used  locally, 
to  a  very  limited  extent,  by  fishermen.  Bakau  kurap  ( Rhizophora 
mucronata ),  bakau  minyak  ( Rhizophora  conjugata) ,  tumu  (Brugu- 
iera  gymnorhiza ),  mata  buaya  (Bruguiera  eriopetcila ),  and  tengar 
( Ceriops  spp.)  produce  bark  which  contains  tannin  to  the  amount  of 
25  per  cent  or  more  of  the  dry  weight.  They  can  also  be  used  as  a 
source  of  dyestuffs.  The  principal  factories  for  the  manufacture  of 
cutch  from  mangrove  bark  are  located  at  Pontianak,  Rejang,  Brunei, 
Kudat,  and  Sandakan,  in  Borneo. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  quite  a  number  of  trees  in  the  inland 
forests  whose  bark  contains  appreciable  amounts  of  tannin.  Thus 


190  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

far  no  systematic  work  has  been  done  on  the  analysis  of  these  barks. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  country  contains  considerably  more 
than  enough  tannin-producing  trees  to  supply  the  local  needs. 

OIL-CONTAINING  NUTS. 

Kemiri  nuts ,  or  candlenuts ,  are  the  fruit  of  the  tree  Aleurites 
moluccana  (Willd),  which  grows  to  a  considerable  size.  Its  principal 
economic  value  is  in  its  fruit.  The  nuts  resemble  in  some  respects  the 
hazelnut  and  produce  an  oil  that  is  an  important  ingredient  in  the 
native  foods,  while  its  use  in  a  preparation  for  the  hair  is  much  valued 
by  the  natives.  As  a  paint  oil  it  can  not  compete  with  linseed  under 
ordinary  market  conditions,  according  to  Dutch  authorities,  as  the 
processes  of  decorticating  are  expensive. 

In  Java  the  trees  are  planted  by  the  natives  in  their  villages,  but  in 
the  Outer  Possessions  they  grow  wild.  They  are  cultivated  in  the 
southern  part  of  Celebes,  which  is  the  largest  producing  area  outside 
of  Java. 

The  product  of  the  Outer  Possessions  not  used  locally  goes  almost 
entirety  to  Java,  and  there  is  but  a  small  export  to  Singapore. 

The  oil  is  known  on  the  European  market  as  Aleurites  oil,  Bankoel 
oil,  candlenut  oil,  and  Chinese  wood  oil. 

Balem  and  soentai  nuts  are  the  fruit  of  the  Palaquium  pisang  and 
Palaquium  oleosum ,  respectively,  and  produce  what  is  known  in  com¬ 
merce  as  “  vegetable  tallow  Siak.”  These  trees  grow  in  the  forests  of 
Sumatra  principally,  and  the  exported  nuts  are  shipped  to  Singapore. 
The  fat  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tapioca  and  sago  in 
Singapore,  and  it  also  is  a  good  soap  material.  The  exports  in  1914 
were  747  metric  tons;  in  1915,  818  tons;  in  1916,  615  tons;  in  1917, 
26  tons ;  in  1918,  346  tons ;  and  in  1919,  439  tons. 

Dragon's  blood  is  a  dark  brown  or  reddish  resin  obtained  from 
the  fruit  of  several  varieties  of  the  rattan  palm.  It  is  nearly 
opaque  when  ready  for  the  market  and  brittle,  and  when  ground 
makes  a  red  powder.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  when  heated  gives 
off  benzoic  acid. 

In  the  Netherlands  Indies  dragon’s  blood  is  used  for  coloring 
articles  made  from  fibrous  materials,  such  as  baskets  and  hats,  and 
in  western  countries  in  medicines  as  an  astringent,  for  coloring 
paper,  glass,  and  varnishes,  and  in  the  photographic  industry. 

The  export,  which  is  nearly  all  to  Singapore,  Penang,  Hong¬ 
kong,  and  China,  was,  in  1914,  36  metric  tons;  in  1915,  33  tons; 
in  1916,  31  tons;  in  1917,  45  tons;  in  1918,  58  tons;  and  in  1919, 
43  tons. 

Tenghawang  or  Borneo  tallow  is  a  product  of  several  trees  of  the 
Depterocarpacese  family,  some  of  which  bear  a  fat  used  locally, 
but  only  a  few  bear  an  exportable  quality.  These  trees  grow  in 
western  Borneo  principally,  whence  most  of  the  export  comes, 
although  there  is  some  production  in  Palembang,  Sumatra. 

Like  the  oil  of  thfe  balem  and  soentai  nuts,  this  tallow  is  largely 
used  in  the  tapioca  and  sago  factories  for  greasing  pans  and  for  soap 
making. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 

MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

Prepared  in  collaboration  with  Charles  Janin,  consulting  engineer,  United  States  Bureau 

of  Mines. 

The  most  important  minerals  mined  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  are  tin,  coal,  and  petroleum.  Recent  investigations  have 
shown  the  importance  of  some  iron  deposits,  and,  in  addition  to 
these,  lead,  copper,  manganese,  and  tungsten  ores  are  found  in  small 
quantities  and  some  diamonds  are  mined  in  south  and  east  Borneo. 
The  tin-producing  islands  are  Banka,  Billiton,  and  Singkep.  Su¬ 
matra  also  possesses  some  tin  deposits  in  Siak,  but  so  far  these 
latter  are  unimportant. 

TIN  MINING  IN  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

Tin  was  discovered  in  Banka  in  1710.  Mining  operations  were 
carried  on  at  first  by  the  natives,  but  they  wrere  gradually  replaced 
by  Chinese,  who  organized  the  industry  on  a  systematic  basis  and 
introduced  important  improvements  in  mining  methods.  The ‘total 
production  of  tin  in  Banka  is  stated  at  approximately  500,000  tons 
to  date.  The  Billiton  deposits  were  not  worked  on  a  large  scale 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  those  of  Sing¬ 
kep  about  30  years  later. 

The  three  islands  lie  on  the  southeasterly  extension  of  the  axis 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  primary  tin  deposits  are  in  granites 
and  ancient  sediments,  and  consist  more  of  impregnations  than  true 
veins.  The  granite  inclosing  them  is  altered  to  greisen  containing 
cassiterite  and  topaz,  while  the  veins  contain  cassiterite,  pyrite, 
wolframite,  tourmaline,  magnetite,  and  sometimes  siderite. 

In  Banka  tin  mining  is  carried  on  by  the  Government.  The  ore 
deposits  are  mostly  alluvial  and  are  worked  in  open  pits  by  Chinese 
coolies,  either  under  contract  or  under  direct  Government  super¬ 
vision. 

The  ore  is  smelted  locally  in  blast  furnaces  or  sent  to  central 
smelters,  located  in  some  districts.  Before  the  war  Banka  tin  was 
all  sold  by  auction  in  Holland,  with  the  exception  of  small  amounts 
sent  to  Batavia  or  used  for  Government  services.  To  prevent  the  tin 
reaching  Germany  during  the  war,  the  supplies  to  Holland  were 
limited  by  the  Allies,  and  much  of  the  Banka  tin  was  shipped  direct 
to  England  and  the  United  States.  In  Billiton  and  Singkep  private 
companies  work  tin  deposits,  and  a  large  part  of  the  ore  obtained 
is  smelted  at  Singapore. 

In  1852  the  Netherlands  Government  established  a  Bureau  of 
Mines  to  organize  and  develop  the  mining  industry.  At  first  the 

191 


192 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


bureau  included  10  engineers,  but  at  present  has  over  60  engineers 
and  geologists  and  a  large  number  of  assistant's.  The  bureau’s  head¬ 
quarters  are  at  Batavia.  A  yearbook  is  issued  devoted  to  adminis¬ 
trative,  technical,  and  statistical  details. 

Banka  has  an  area  of  12,240  square  kilometers  (7,606  square  miles) 
and  a  population  of  100,000,  three-eighths  of  the  population  being 
of  Chinese  origin.  The  exposed  geological  formations  of  Banka  are 
granites  and  sedimentaries,  consisting  of  sandstone,  quartzites,  and 
shales  of  the  Paleozic  age.  Strata  are  compressed  into  steep  folds. 
The  tin  ores  are  found  in  alluvial  deposits  along  the  northern  and 
eastern  coastal  ranges.  Small  veins  of  tin  ore  occur  in  the  granite, 
but  are  not  of  commercial  importance.  The  overburden  is  clay,  sand, 
and  gravel  of  varying  thickness,  the  “pay”  gravel  ranging  from  0.1 
to  0.4  inch  thick,  in  exceptional  cases  reaching  a  meter  in  thickness. 
The  tin  ore  is  from  2  to  4  per  cent  of  the  ore  stratum,  reaching  in 
some  cases  as  high  as  10  per  cent. 

The  geological  conditions  and  the  occurrence  of  tin  ore  on  the 
island  of  Billiton  are  similar  to  those  on  Banka,  but,  in  addition  to 
the  alluvial  deposits,  several  tin  veins  are  large  and  rich  enough 
to  be  worked.  The  principal  operating  company  is  the  Billiton 
Maatschappij.  A  concession  was  granted  to  this  company  in  1852, 
and  in  1892  it  was  extended  a  further  period  of  85  years.  The  Gov¬ 
ernment  receives  five-eighths  of  the  annual  profits.  Operations,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  lode  mines,  are  organized  along  lines  similar  to  those  of 
Banka.  In  1914  there  were  47  mines  operating. 

The  Singkep  Tin  Co.  is  another  private  enterprise  which  is  oper¬ 
ating  on  the  island  of  Singkep,  in  the  Riouw  Archipelago.  A  con¬ 
cession  was  granted  to  this  company  in  1899.  The  occurrence  of  tin 
ore  is  similar  to  that  at  Banka  and  at  Billiton,  as  are  also  the  mining 
operations.  Production  in  1914  was  834  metric  tons.  Near  Singkep 
tin  ore  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  and  is  worked  by  dredges. 
All  tin  ore  from  Singkep  is  smelted  at  Singapore. 

Tin-mining  operations  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  some¬ 
what  similar  to  those  carried  on  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  de¬ 
scribed  further  on,  with  the  exception  that  less  progress  has  been 
made  in  dredging.  The  only  dredging  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  is  at  Singkep. 

A  number  of  improvements  have  recently  been  made  in  the  Neth¬ 
erlands  East  Indies  in  mining  methods  and  in  smelting,  under  the 
direction  of  Government  engineers.  Most  of  the  tin  ore  won  is  from 
open  pits,  in  alluvial  deposits,  and  the  improvements  mentioned  in¬ 
clude  draining  of  the  pits,  removal  of  barren  overburden,  and  better 
smelting  and  mining  arrangements.  A  large  part  of  the  tin  is 
smelted  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  but  some,  notably  that  from 
Billiton  and  Singkep,  is  shipped  to  Singapore. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


193 


Statistics  relating  to  the  Banka  tin  industry  are  given  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  table : 


Year. 

Number 
of  mines. 

Average 

number 

of 

laborers. 

Produc¬ 

tion. 

Quantity 

auctioned 

in 

Holland. 

Quantity 
sold  in 
Nether¬ 
lands 
East 
Indies. 

Cost  price 
auctioned 
per 
picul. 

Averag< 

pri 

Holland. 

;  selling 
ce. 

Nether¬ 

lands 

East 

Indies. 

Metric 

Metric 

Metric 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

1910 . 

361 

19,823 

16,686 

13, 840 

40.00 

114.00 

1911 . 

366 

21,292 

15,471 

15, 358 

39.00 

142.00 

1912 . 

376 

22,296 

15,116 

16,329 

43.00 

154.  00 

1913 . 

362 

21,436 

15, 752 

15'  380 

45.00 

152.00 

1914 . 

342 

21,406 

14,477 

9, 847 

2,278 

43.50 

127.00 

108.00 

1915 . 

351 

19,050 

13,497 

2,475 

11.855 

41.50 

142.00 

111.00 

1916 . 

355 

19,628 

14, 808 

1,148 

20,458 

42.25 

144.00 

121.00 

1917 . 

326 

18,910 

13,777 

856 

11, 527 

43.99 

175.00 

156.00 

1918 . 

325 

18,658 

12,055 

36 

10,934 

58.87 

228.00 

204.00 

Note. — One  picul=136  pounds;  1  florin  =*=$0,402  mint  par  U.  S. 


Production  of  the  Billiton  and  Singkep  Companies  is  given  as 
follows : 


Year  of  report. 

Billiton  Co. 

Singkep 

Co.— 

production. 

Production. 

Share  of 
profits  paid 
to  Nether¬ 
lands  East 
Indies  Gov¬ 
ernment. 

1910 . 

Metric  tons. 
4,334 
4,665 
4,158 
4,453 
4,614 
5,256 
5,954 
6,492 
6,945 

Florins. 
2,286,961 
1, 858,775 
1,938,062 

}•  819, 184 

881,949 

2,541,804 

3,927,374 

5,689,538 

Metric  tons. 
405 
469 
635 

/  672 

\  834 

816 
844 
770 
514 

1911 . 

1912 . 

1913 . 

1914 . 

1915 . 

1916 . 

1917 . 

1918 . 

The  Straits  Trading  Co.  has  one  smelter  at  Singapore  and  another 
at  Penang,  and  the  Eastern  Smelting  Co.  has  a  smelter  at  Penang. 
These  two  companies  have  buying  branches  at  the  tin-producing 
centers  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

The  mines  on  the  island  of  Banka  are  operated  by  the  Dutch  Gov¬ 
ernment,  and  all  the  ore  is  smelted  on  that  island  and  the  tin  shipped 
to  the  Department  of  Public  Industries  at  Batavia. 

The  Billiton  Maatschappij  operates  most  of  the  mining  properties 
on  the  island  of  Billiton.  On  the  island  of  Singkep  there  are  several 
Chinese  operators.  Some  of  the  Billiton  and  Singkep  tin  ore  finds 
its  way  to  Singapore  for  smelting. 


194  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

EXPORTS  OF  TIN  AND  TIN  ORE. 


The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  tin  from  the  Netherlands 
Indies,  by  countries: 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric 

tons. 

108 

Metric 

tons. 

330 

Metric 

tons. 

240 
2,456 
3, 584 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

Metric 

tons. 

7,083 

2,855 

2,570 

34 

1,100 

2,529 

2,036 

82 

880 

297 

Metric 

tons. 

1,220 

6,929 

4,205 

63 

105 

3 

United  States . 

11,688 

3,159 

13, 576 

7, 73S 

Great  Britain . 

330 

British  India,  etc . 

9 

1, 219 
248 

France . . . 

338 

153 

1 

2,085 

4,274 

2 

1,776 

1,763 

531 

373 

1 

430 

Singapore . 

888 

2 

Penang . 

Hongkong . 

304 

12 

695 

14 

China . 

Japan . 

111 

29 

820 

524 

1, 164 

2 

1,624 

887 

All  other . 

570 

308 

Total . 

2,154 

1,460 

12,781 

19, 730 

15,632 

11,584 

19,367 

13,550 

Exported  from: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2,128 

26 

1,452 

8 

9,864 

2,917 

19,729 

15,606 

26 

11,566 

18 

17,011 

2,456 

Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Exports  of  tin  ore  from  the  Netherlands  Indies,  by  countries,  are 
shown  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Singapore . 

Metric 

tons. 

2,503 

6 

Metric 

tons. 

3,555 

13 

12 

Metric 

tons. 

5,433 

7 

Metric 

tons. 

5,820 

Metric 

tons. 

7,048 

Metric 

tons. 

5,253 

Metric 

tons. 

6,764 

N  ftth  prl  an  d  s  _  _ 

Ttftlv  .  . 

’Rp.lprinm_  _  . . . . 

2 

Total 1 . 

2,511 

3,580 

5,440 

5,820 

'  7,048 

5,253 

6,764 

i  All  from  the  Outer  Possessions. 


TIN  MINING  IN  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Tin  mining  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  in  British  Malaya. 
The  deposits  of  alluvial  tin  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  are  the 
most  important  source  of  tin  in  the  world.  At  one  time  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  world’s  supply  came  from  these  mines,  but  at  present 
they  produce  a  little  less  than  40  per  cent  of  the  annual  production 
of  tin.  These  deposits,  as  well  as  those  in  Siam  and  southern  China, 
have  been  worked  by  Chinese  for  centuries,  and  about  60  per  cent  of 
the  tin  produced  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  is  still  won  from 
mines  owned  and  managed  by  Chinese. 

The  production  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  has  been  as  fol¬ 
lows,  the  figures  being  in  piculs  of  133J  pounds  each : 


States. 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Perak . 

Piculs. 

458,876 

195,088 

20,5*44 

62,506 

Piculs. 
414,587 
175, 161 
17,439 
62,010 

Piculs. 

387,750 

170,359 

16,246 

53,460 

Piculs. 

371,722 

178,608 

14,761 

55,427 

Piculs. 

371,848 

148,715 

11,710 

54,632 

Selangor . . 

Negri  Sembilan . . . 

Pahang . 

Total . 

737,014 

669, 197 

627,815 

620,518 

586,905 

Special  Agents  Series  No.  213. 


HYDRAULIC  TIN  MINING,  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  19.— KALI  MAS,  THE  LIGHTER  HARBOR  OF  SOERABAYA,  JAVA. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER.  195 

The  table  shows  a  gradual  falling  off  of  production,  due  partly  to 
the  exhaustion  of  the  higher-grade  deposits  and  also  to  the  falling 
off  in  the  price  of  tin,  which  discourages  mining  of  the  lower-grade 
deposits,  but  which  proved,  however,  attractive  during  the  period 
of  high  prices. 

In  the  Non-Federated  States — that  is,  States  governed  by  native 
rulers  but  under  British  protection — the  production  of  tin  has  been 
small.  It  is  thought  that  as  the  methods  of  transportation  improve 
in  these  States  new  deposits  will  be  found  and  a  greatly  increased 
production  of  tin  will  result. 

The  principal  tin-producing  State  in  British  Malaya  is  Perak, 
Kinta  Valley  being  the  most  important  field  in  that  State. 

The  acreage  set  aside  for  tin  mining  in  the  Federated  Malay 
States,  exclusive  of  unsurveyed  concessions,  was  as  follows  for  the 
years  1918-1920: 


States. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Perak . 

130,651 
65, 513 
19, 524 
23, 023 

132,714 
65, 527 
17,733 
26,988 

130, 259 
67, 434 
15,619 
21, 924 

Selangor . 

Negri  Sembilan . 

Pahang . 

Total . . 

238,711 

242,962 

235, 236 

OCCURRENCE  OF  TIN. 


The  greater  part  of  the  tin  in  Malaya,  as  previously  stated,  comes 
from  placer  mining.  The  geological  formations  in  which  the  tin 
ore  originally  occurred  were  limestone,  granitic,  and  schistose  rocks 
of  various  kinds.  These  rocks  have  in  the  past  ages  been  acted  upon 
by  atmospheric  agencies  whereby  they  have  become  softened  and  de¬ 
composed,  resulting  in  the  general  denudation  of  the  hill  lands  and 
the  formation  of  alluvial  deposits  through  the  mechanical  agency  of 
water. 

The  placers  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The  tin  occurs 
either  scattered  through  the  alluvium  in  more  or  less  uniform  quan¬ 
tities  or  in  layers  of  rich  tin-bearing  strata  separated  by  lean  or 
barren  ground.  Generally  the  “  karang  ”  or  ore-bearing  ground  lies 
in  distinct  beds  or  layers  varying  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to 
a  number  of  feet.  These  beds  or  layers  are  either  resting  on  a  very 
irregular  limestone  bedrock  or  on  clay  strata  above  the  bedrock. 
There  may  be  several  distinct  tin-bearing  strata  in  a  deposit. 

There  is  usually  a  barren  overburden  of  clay  and  sand  which  also 
varies  in  thickness,  generally  from  10  to  30  feet.  In  places  where 
the  ground  has  been  worked  by  Chinese  methods  there  will  be  found 
unrecovered  tin  in  tailing,  frequently  enough  to  make  it  of  good 
dredgable  tin  content,  and  there  are  patches  of  virgin  ground  be¬ 
tween  the  old  “lombongs”  (Chinese  open-cast  workings)  that  add 
greatly  to  the  recovery  of  tin  from  these  areas.  Much  of  the  ground 
now  available  for  dredging  has  been  worked  over  by  Chinese  miners. 

The  bedrock  in  the  Taiping  district  is  clay;  that  is,  the  dredges 
do  not  dig  below  the  clay  strata  upon  which  the  lower  layer  of  “  ka¬ 
rang  ”  rests.  In  Ipoh  and  Kuala  Lumpur  sections  the  bedrock  is  a 
hard  limestone.  In  these  fields  are  also  found  numerous  limestone 


19878°— 23 - 14 


196  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

pinnacles,  generally  occurring  in  groups,  covered  by  alluvial  and 
frequently  impossible  to  detect  from  surface  indications.  In  open¬ 
cast  mining  it  is  found  that  the  richest  ground  is  that  concentrated 
about  these  pinnacles. 

METHODS  OF  MINING  TIN. 

Lode  mining. — Except  on  the  east  coast  little  has  been  done  in 
lode  mining.  The  property  of  the  Pahang  Consolidated  is  the  one 
exception,  and  here  a  series  of  lodes  have  been  worked  for  many 
years  with  varying  results,  but  at  present  with  considerable  success. 
The  alluvial  deposits  are  worked  by  open  cast,  by  shafts?  by  under¬ 
ground  method,  by  ground  sluicing,  and  by  hydraulicking  and 
dredging. 

The  tin-bearing  ground  may  be  of  the  nature  of  stiff  clay  or  of 
gravel  consisting  of  water- worn  quartz  and  granitic  pebbles  varying 
in  size,  mixed  with  sand  and  clay.  This  is  brought  to  the  surface 
for  treatment,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  tin-bearing  ground. 
The  overburden  and  the  tin-bearing  ground  are  removed  and  raised 
by  manual  labor,  or  by  a  haulage  system  of  trucks  running  on  rails, 
or  by  gravel  pumps,  and  in  recent  years  by  bucket  dredges.  The 
open-cast  mines  are  kept  dry  either  by  Chinese  wooden  pumps  run 
by  water  force  or  manual  labor,  or  by  ordinary  steam  or  electric 
pumps.  In  small  operations  Chinese  coolies  may  raise  the  water  by 
means  of  long-handled  sweeps,  similar  to  the  old-fashioned  weil 
sweeps,  or  by  means  of  tin  gasoline  cans  swung  on  ropes  and  manipu¬ 
lated  by  two  coolies.  A  surprisingly  large  amount  of  water  can 
be  handled  by  these  methods. 

Underground  methods  of  mining  are  resorted  to  when  the  tin¬ 
bearing  deposits  occur  at  depths  that  would  not  make  open-cast 
mining  a  paying  proposition.  The  method  is  to  sink  shafts  at  vary¬ 
ing  distances  apart,  which  are  all  connected  below,  and  to  block  out 
the  tin-bearing  strata.  This  is  not  an  economical  method  on  account 
of  the  expense  entailed  in  timber  and  pumping,  and  not  all  of  the 
payable  ground  can  be  extracted,  as  pillars  must  be  left.  The  incen¬ 
tive  to  underground  operations  is  the  smaller  capital  required. 

“  Lombong  ”  or  open-cast  mining  is  the  form  generally  followed 
by  the  Chinese.  It  consists  of  mining  the  ground  exactly  as  a 
gravel  pit  would  be  opened.  Only  hand  labor  is  employed.  The 
coolies  fill  their  basket's  by  means  of  the  changloc  or  hoe  and  carry 
the  dirt  to  the  washing  sluices.  The  overburden  may  be  washed 
with  the  tin-bearing  ground  or  simply  piled  to  one  side  and  not 
further  handled.  At  some  mines  the  overburden  is  removed  in 
advance  of  mining  the  karang  or  wash  dirt,  which  is  then  carried 
to  the  washing  plant.  In  nearly  all  mines  of  this  type  power  is  used 
in  some  form,  either  for  removing  water  from  the  mine  or  for  pump¬ 
ing  water  for  washing  purposes,  and  also  for  elevating  the  dirt. 
The  source  of  power  in  most  general  use  is  a  comparatively  small 
nonportable  steam  engine  burning  wood  fuel.  Frequently  several 
of  these  engines  are  in  use  on  the  same  line.  This  form  of  power  is, 
of  course,  most  inefficient.  At  the  larger  mines,  however,  in  recent 
years,  more  efficient  steam  engines,  some  of  portable  type,  and  in 
some  cases  Diesel  engines  or  electricity,  have  been  installed. 

Ground  sluicing. — Ground-sluicing  operations  consist  in  bringing 
water  by  gravity  or  by  pumping  to  suitable  levels  and  taking  the 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER.  197 

tin-bearing  ground  either  into  the  natural  channel  of  a  stream  or  into 
constructed  sluices  in  which  the  preliminary  separation  of  the  tin 
ore  from  the  earth  is  made. 

Hydraulic  mining  is  carried  on  by  the  use  of  monitors,  the  water 
being  brought  from  a  distance  in  pipes  under  varying  pressures 
from  heights  of  50  feet  up  to  500  feet.  The  ground  is  broken  down  by 
jets  of  water  played  from  the  hydraulic  giant  against  the  face  of  the 
deposit,  the  water  also  acting  as  a  conveyor  for  the  material  to  suit¬ 
able  sluices,  where  the  separation  of  the  tin  ore  is  made.  This  method 
of  mining  allows  the  working  of  ground  that  probably  could  not  be 
handled  by  other  means.  In  fact,  the  tailings  from  Cornish  tin 
mines  often  carry  a  higher  value  per  ton  than  the  virgin  ground  of  a 
first-class  hydraulic  property  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  The 
tin  ore  that  escapes  from  Cornish  mills,  however,  is  of  a  consistency 
of  the  finest  flour  and  is  most  difficult  to  save,  while  in  the  hydraulic 
property  the  tin  is  comparatively  coarse  and  easily  caught. 

Hydroelectric  mining. — Where  water  under  sufficient  head  is  not 
available  for  hydraulic  mining  or  where  economy  in  the  use  of  water 
is  necessary,  gravel  pumps  are  frequently  installed  to  elevate  the 
tin-bearing  ground,  or  the  tailing.  Power  for  these  pumps  may  be 
either  hydroelectric  or  steam,  or  steam  or  oil  engines  may  be  used 
to  generate  electricity. 

The  gravel  pump  is  a  centrifugal  pump  with  renewable  liner  and 
wearing  plates  and  is  capable  of  raising  any  stone  which  can  enter 
its  suction.  The  efficiency  of  the  gravel  pump  is  low,  the  pumped 
material  being  about  5  per  cent  solids  by  bulk. 

Suction,  or  pump  dredging,  as  it  is  more  commonly  known,  has 
been  tried  in  the  Kinta  and  Klang  Valleys.  The  first  operation  is 
to  excavate  a  suitable  paddock  (pit)  on  the  property,  in  which  is 
built  the  pontoon  which  carries  the  boilers,  machinery,  and  pump. 
This  is  built  on  solid  ground,  and  the  pontoon  is  floated  from  place 
to  place  as  the  land  is  worked  out  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  work 
fresh  ground.  The  method  of  operation  is  as  follows: 

The  ground  is  broken  down  by  monitors  with  water  under  pres¬ 
sure  obtained  by  gravity  or  from  pumps,  and  this  ground  is  sluiced 
to  a  sump  at  a  somewhat  lower  elevation  than  the  ground  on  which 
the  pontoon  is  resting.  Powerful  gravel  pumps  raise  the  water 
and  debris  to  sluices  placed  at  suitable  elevations  in  order  to  dis¬ 
pose  of  the  tailings,  and  in  these  sluices,  with  or  without  riffles,  the 
tin  ore  is  separated  by  manual  labor.  When  it  is  desired  to  move 
the  pontoon  to  a  more  suitable  place  to  work,  the  paddock  is  flooded 
and  the  pontoon  is  floated  to  the  newly  filled  station. 

Bucket  dredging. — Bucket  dredging  is  now  extensively  practiced 
in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  The  first  dredge,  introduced  in 
1912,  belonged  to  the  Aialayan  Tin  Co.  During  1920  about  20 
dredges  were  in  operation,  and  10  or  12  new  dredges  are  under  con¬ 
struction  or  proposed  at  the  present  time.  About  15  per  cent  of 
the  present  production  of  tin  in  British  Malaya  is  won  by  dredg¬ 
ing  operations,  approximately  15,000,000  yards  being  worked  by  this 
method  in  1920.  The  amount  of  ground  worked  by  bucket  dredges 
is  steadily  increasing  on  account  of  the  lower  operating  cost  of  this 
method  of  mining. 


198  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Dulang  washers. — In  addition  to  the  ordinary  mining  operations 
described,  several  thousand  persons  are  employed  in  dulang  wash¬ 
ing.  The  dulang  is  a  wooden  pan,  somewhat  similar  to  the  batea 
in  Mexico  or  to  the  gold  miner’s  pan.  Dulang  washing  is  usually 
done  by  women  and  children  working  on  old  dumps  or  along  small 
streams,  and  in  some  cases  tributing  on  the  tailing  from  mining 
operations.  There  were  12,000  dulang  passes  or  licenses  issued  in 
1920,  and  the  holders  earned  an  average  of  $251  Strait's  currency  dur¬ 
ing  the  year. 

COST  OF  MINING. 

The  cost  of  mining  in  British  Malaya,  as  in  every  other  part  of 
the  world,  has  greatly  increased  in  the  past  few  years.  It  is  difficult 
to  get  accurate  figures  of  mining  costs  at  the  present  time,  and  those 
given  must  be  considered  as  the  best  available.  Figures  of  operat¬ 
ing  cost  unless  accompanied  by  full  details  of  operating  conditions 
are  not  of  great  value  and  are  only  useful  as  a  basis  of  estimation. 
An  analysis  of  such  costs  of  dredging  companies  as  are  obtainable 
shows  that  costs  have  increased  50  per  cent  or  more,  and  would 
probably  average  close  to  25  cents  Straits  currency  or  12J  cents 
gold  a  cubic  yard.  Gravel  pump  mining  would  cost  approximately 
double  that  of  bucket  dredging. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  mining  by  Chinese.  Informa¬ 
tion  from  many  sources,  white  and  Chinese,  indicates  that  the  cost 
at  Chinese  open-cast  mines  runs  from  $75  to  $135  Straits  currency 
a  picul  produced  ($42.58  to  $76.65  mint  par  U.  S.  per  133J  pounds), 
depending  upon  the  district  and  local  conditions  encountered.  Based 
upon  yardage,  Chinese  open-cast  mines  would  indicate  a  total  cost 
from  75  cent's  to  $1.50  Straits  currency  per  cubic  yard. 

Chinese  owners  by  various  trading  methods  are  sometimes  able  to 
recover  tin  at  a  lower  final  cost  than  the  white  man  could  do  under 
the  same  conditions;  that  is,  by  cooperating  with  labor  and  also  by 
selling  goods,  etc.,  to  the  coolies.  At  times  yardage  costs  are  based 
only  on  the  quantity  of  karang  (tin-bearing  ground)  handled  and 
take  no  account  of  the  overburden.  In -such  cases  the  yardage  cost 
would  appear  much  lower  than  when  other  methods  of  accounting 
were  followed. 

The  following  figures  of  cost  in  Straits  currency  per  picul  of  tin 
concentrates  produced  by  different  methods  of  mining  are  taken  from 
company  records.  These  are  given  as  a  matter  of  general  interest 
only.  It  is  obvious  that  in  addition  to  the  various  factors  govern¬ 
ing  operation  costs  the  grade  of  ground  worked  would  have  consider¬ 
able  bearing  on  the  cost  per  picul  of  tin  won.  Inefficient  methods 
at  a  property  with  high  tin  content  might  produce  cheaper  tin  than 
the  best  possible  practice  on  ground  with  a  low  content.  Comparisons 
under  this  system  of  costs  are  useless. 


Per  picul. 

Open  cast  with  mechanical  power _ _ _ $51.  85-$136.  00 

Hydraulic  mines  under  natural  head _  27.  44-  94.  00 

Hydraulic  mines  with  pumps _  42.  54 

Suction-pump  dredge -  61.  00 

Bucket  dredges -  23.  80-  69.  00 


To  make  an  attractive  proposition  for  bucket  dredging  the  recov¬ 
ery  should  be  over  0.5  pound  per  cubic  yard  of  concentrate  containing 


199 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 

72  to  75  per  cent  tin,  other  conditions  being  favorable.  Operating 
costs  with  tin  at  $110  Straits  currency  a  picul  (£220  a  ton  London) 
would  be  met  with  a  recovery  of  about  0.35  pound  (tin  concentrate) 
per  cubic  yard.  (Straits  $1==$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.)  Reports  and 
prospectuses  of  dredging  companies  operating  in  Malaya  claim  a 
tin  content  of  from  one-half  to  over  1  pound  per  cubic  yard,  but 
actual  returns  indicate  that  the  recovery  frequently  falls  below  the 
first  figure.  The  report  of  one  company  for  1919,  however,  gives 
a  return  of  1.21  pounds  per  yard,  a  cost  of  $23.29  a  picul,  and  a  price 
realized  of  $87.63  a  picul.  Nearly  all  of  the  dredging  companies 
have  been  declaring  good  dividends  with  the  present  price  of  tin 
(January,  1922).  The  average  recovery  from  all  dredging  com¬ 
panies  operating  in  the  Malay  States  in  1918  was  about  0.75  pound 
per  cubic  yard. 

METALLURGY. 

The  tin-bearing  ground  in  some  cases  may  carry  a  high  percentage 
of  concentrate.  The  ground  can  be  worked  at  a  profit  by  hydraulic 
mining  under  favorable  conditions  when  the  tin  content  is  only 
one-fourth  of  a  pound  to  a  cubic  yard.  In  property  where  the  tin 
ground  is  composed  of  gravel  and  sand  the  tin  ore  can  be  easily 
separated,  and  in  small  operations  this  is  done  in  short  or  long 
sluices,  the  ground  being  raked  into  the  sluice  by  the  use  of  a  hoe  and 
washed  by  the  careful  manipulation  of  water  by  the  Chinese,  the  tin 
ore  being  retained  at  the  top  of  the  box  and  the  sand  and  stone  carried 
out  at  the  end.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  sluices  are  several  hun¬ 
dred  feet  long,  and  in  these  sluices  the  separation  of  tin  ore  is  ef¬ 
fected  by  coolies  using  long  hoes  to  stir  the  material  and  the  placing 
of  riffles  in  the  sluices  at  regular  intervals. 

When  the  tin-bearing  ground  contains  much  stiff  clay,  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  necessary  to  pass  it  through  a  preliminary  process  of  puddling, 
and  thereafter  the  ground  is  treated  in  the  sluice.  The  tin  ore  ob¬ 
tained  by  these  methods  is  not,  however,  ready  for  the  smelter.  Im¬ 
purities  which  have,  a  specific  gravity  approaching  that  of  tin  ore 
are  wolfram,  arsenical  pyrites,  tourmaline,  and  iron.  The  con¬ 
centrate  recovered  from  the  sluices  is  treated  by  jigs  or  in  sieves  by 
hand,  and  where  much  wolfram  is  present  the  ore  must  be  treated 
by  a  magnetic  separator.  Mechanical  dressing  plants  are  seldom 
used,  and  although  the  methods  of  washing  the  cencentrate  seem 
primitive  the  resultant  product  is  an  ore  of  high  grade,  and  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  low  cost  of  labor  the  expense  of  treatment  has  not  been 
great. 

SMELTING. 

Until  the  establishment  of  European-owned  smelters,  of  which 
there  are  two  in  the  Straits  Settlements  (that  of  the  Straits  Trading 
Co.  is  the  largest  tin  smelter  in  the  world),  the  tin  ore  was  smelted 
by  the  Chinese  in  the  most  primitive  manner,  and  their  operations 
still  continue. 

Tin  ore  is  a  compound  of  metallic  tin  and  oxj^gen,  and  in  order  to 
obtain  tin  in  a  marketable  form  it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the  oxygen. 
This  is  done  by  smelting  the  ore  with  carbon,  which  combines  with 
the  oxygen  to  form  a  gas  and  liberates  the  tin.  The  Chinese  smelters 
are  made  of  clay  in  a  light  metallic  framework.  The  blast  is  fur- 


200  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


nished  by  a  sort  of  air  pump  made  of  wood,  with  a  piston  made  to 
tit  tightly  by  a  covering  of  leather.  This  piston  is  attached  to  a 
handle  and  is  worked  by  a  coolie  walking  backward  and  forward. 
The  furnace  is  fed  from  the  top  with  charcoal  and  tin  ore.  The  slag 
and  molten  tin  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and  run  into  a 
bowl.  Here  the  slag  is  skimmed  off  and  the  tin  ladled  out  and  cast 
into  ingots.  There  were  about  30  of  these  smelters  in  operation  in 
1920.  When  the  price  of  tin  is  high  the  Chinese  smelter  enters  into 
keen  competition  with  the  English  smelter.  When  the  price  is  low 
he  is  less  keen  on  competing.  The  tin  exported  by  the  Chinese  smelter 
must  be  subjected  to  a  further  purifying  process  before  it  is  sold  to 
the  tin  trade. 

Smelter  charges. — A  description  of  the  methods  employed  at  the 
European  smelters  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  is  not  given,  as 
information  regarding  these  plants  is  refused  by  the  management. 

The  smelters,  in  addition  to  direct  smelting  charges,  make  a  de¬ 
duction  of  several  units  from  the  assay  value  for  losses  in  smelting, 
and  make  a  charge  for  bags,  sacking,  freight,  insurance,  etc.  In 
some  cases  these  charges  were  £7  a  ton  of  concentrate  or  more.  A 
rough  approximation  of  the  realizable  value  of  a  shipment  can  be 
arrived  at  by  taking  63  per  cent  of  the  tin  price  on  the  day  of  sale. 

The  difference  in  the  market  price  of  tin  and  the  amount  received 
by  the  miners  is  shown  by  the  following  figures,  from  the  report  of 
the  Straits  Warden  of  Mines  for  1920,  which  must  be  taken  as 
approximations.  The  figures  under  “  Balance  ”  represent  the  average 
deductions  made  on  account  of  smelting  and  local  costs. 


Year. 

Ore 

price. 

Received 

by 

miners. 

Differ¬ 

ence. 

Duty. 

Balance. 

S$51. 41 

SS42.22 

S$9. 19 

S$6. 18 

SS3. 01 

54.72 

45. 65 

9. 07 

6.77 

2.30 

61. 27 

51. 35 

9.92 

7.  82 

2.10 

78.29 

61.30 

16.99 

1 12.56 

4.43 

108. 45 

85. 32 

23. 13 

1 18.  45 

4. 68 

86.89 

71.  40 

15.40 

12.00 

3. 49 

108. 48 

88.00 

20. 48 

15. 60 

4.88 

1  Includes  war  tax. 


LABOR. 

Labor  employed  at  the  mines  is  mostly  Chinese.  In  1919  there  were 
about  144,000  Asiatics  employed ;  of  these  about  8,500  were  Indians, 
Javanese,  and  Malays,  and  the  remainder  Chinese.  During  Decem¬ 
ber,  1920,  there  was  a  total  of  89,557  men  employed  at  the  mines,  all 
of  whom,  excepting  610  on  gold  and  3,000  on  coal,  were  engaged  in 
tin  mining.  In  addition  to  the  labor  actually  employed  at  the  mine, 
many  thousands  were  employed  in  operations  more  or  less  directly 
connected  with  mining. 

Wages  vary  from  80  cents  Straits  currency  a  day  for  the  common 
coolie  to  $2.50  or  more  for  the  skilled  worker.  (Straits  $1=$0.5678 
mint  par  U.  S.)  The  decrease  in  labor  force  is  partly  offset  by  the 
great  increase  in  labor-saving  machinery.  The  addition  of  a  num¬ 
ber  of  bucket  dredges,  operated  largely  by  mechanical  power,  has 
taken  the  place  of  hand  labor  in  Malaya.  The  employment  of  labor 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  DOWER. 


201 


is  based  either  on  the  wage  system  or  piecework,  or  the  mine  may  be 
leased  to  the  actual  laborers  for  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  output. 
Tributers  are  generally  employed  on  the  smaller  areas,  which  may  be 
worked  by  ground  sluicing,  but  at  times  they  undertake  the  work¬ 
ing  of  underground  and  open-cast  mines. 

The  number  of  men  employed  at  the  different  kinds  of  labor  at 
the  tin  mines  during  1919  and  1920  is  shown  in  the  table  which  fol¬ 
lows.  A  decrease  of  over  23,000  men  is  shown  in  1920  as  compared  to 
1919,  the  main  decrease  being  in  the  open-cast  and  surface  workings. 


State. 

1919 

1920 

Open-cast 

and 

surface. 

Under¬ 

ground. 

Hydrau¬ 
lic  and 
lampan. 

Bucket 

dredging. 

Open-cast 

and 

surface. 

Under¬ 

ground. 

Hydrau¬ 
lic  and 
lampan. 

Bucket 

dredging. 

Perak . 

Selangor . 

Negri  Sembilan . 

Pahang . 

Total . 

40,783 
29,230 
1, 101 
1,518 

4, 131 
2, 105 
479 
3, 245 

17,414 

5,873 

628 

3,866 

2,432 

144 

158 

19,232 
20, 729 
1,183 
710 

1,903 

3,837 

233 

3,749 

27,360 

4,103 

719 

2,957 

2,127 

460 

105 

152 

72,632 

9,960 

27,781 

2,734 

41, 854 

•  9,722 

35, 139 

2,844 

Fuel  used  in  the  Malay  States  is  wood,  coal  secured  from  local 
mines,  or  oil,  the  latter  imported.  Some  coal  is  also  imported.  Con¬ 
sumption  of  fuel  at  the  mines  in  1920  was  approximately  as  follows : 
Coal,  102,270  tons;  wood,  769,790  tons;  and  oil,  2,700  tons. 

CAPITAL  INVESTED  IN  MINING. 

Capital  invested  in  mining  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  in  1920, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  Mines  Department,  is  as  follows : 

Thirty-seven  British  companies  with  an  issued  sterling  capital  of 
£3,643,693  and  33  companies  with  a  combined  capital  of  $13,081,250 
Straits  dollars  are  operating  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  There 
are  four  French  companies  whose  combined  capital  amounts  to 
10,890,000  francs.  In  addition  to  the  above,  one  American  concern, 
the  Yukon  Gold  Co.,  has  entered  the  Malayan  field  and  will  have,  it  is 
understood,  a  capital  of  over  $5,000,000  gold  set  aside  for  its  opera¬ 
tions  in  that  country. 

Opportunities  for  investment  may  be  classed  under  three  heads: 
(1)  Securing  licenses  from  the  Government  and  prospecting  in  new 
fields;  (2)  purchase  of  property  from  present  owners;  (3)  coopera¬ 
tion  with  present  owners. 

The  method  of  securing  property  is  as  follows:  When  an  area  is 
held  by  one  owner,  negotiations  are  comparatively  simple,  but  many 
of  the  mining  claims  are  quite  small,  and  to  secure  an  area  of  suitable 
size  numerous  individuals  must  be  approached.  Negotiations  under 
these  conditions  are  slow  and  tedious,  as  one  accustomed  to  Chinese 
methods  can  appreciate.  The  only  practical  means  is  to  employ  a 
Chinese  firm  to  secure  the  options  and  for  the  American  or  European 
to  remain  in  the  background  until  the  deal  is  closed. 

The  asking  price  of  land  varies  according  to  the  district,  the  esti¬ 
mated  tin  content,  and  the  idea  of  the  owner.  The  price  paid  depends 
to  a  great  extent  upon  the  skill  of  the  negotiator.  Prices  paid  during 


202  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


1919-20  ranged  from  $100  to  $300  Straits  currency  an  acre  for 
ground  which  was  estimated  to  have  about  1  pound  tin  content  per 
cubic  yard. 

FUTURE  MINING  PROSPECTS. 

Throughout  the  Federated  Malay  States  are  deserted  mines  that 
are  said  to  have  been  worked  out.  Some  of  these  have  proved  very 
attractive  properties  for  dredging,  as  the  prospecting  results  of  the 
Yukon  Gold  Co.  and  others  have  indicated.  The  operations  of  the 
Chinese  miner  sometimes  stopped  at  a  layer  of  clay  or  false  bedrock 
which  he  thought  indicated  the  limit  of  pay  dirt,  and  subsequent 
drilling  may  prove  he  was  at  times  wrong  and  make  available  large 
areas  for  mining  under  modern  methods. 

It  is  not’  likely  there  will  be  any  considerable  extension  of  hydrau¬ 
lic  mining  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  as  practically  all  available 
water  for  this  purpose  has  been  secured,  and  tailing  restrictions  are 
becoming  more  severe.  The  great  future  of  mining  in  the  Feder¬ 
ated  Malay  States  lies  in  the  working  of  low-grade  ground  by 
dredging  operations  and  improvement  in  the  methods  of  mining 
employed  at  some  -of  the  larger  open-cast  mines  which  are  too  deep 
for  dredging. 

The  Chinese  miner  does  not  understand  modern  practice,  but  is 
willing  to  cooperate  with  those  he  believes  will  efficiently  handle 
his  property  and  who  will  install  modern  machinery.  In  some  cases 
he  will  be  willing  to  participate  in  the  financing  of  new  equipment  if 
this  is  desired,  but  in  most  cases  will  wish  to  furnish  only  the  mine 
for  a  share  in  the  profits.  Large  areas  of  land  lying  idle,  that*  are  too 
low-grade  for  expensive  mining  practice,  are  now  held  by  the 
Chinese.  Some  of  this  land  has  recently  been  purchased  or  taken 
under  option  by  dredging  companies,  but  there  are  still  available  a 
number  of  areas  worth  investigation  by  anyone  considering  dredging 
operations  in  Malaya. 

TIN  GRADES. 

All  tin  produced  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  has  a  yellow 
tinge,  whether  it  is  smelted  by  the  European  smelters  or  by  the 
Chinese,  and  is  of  a  fineness  of  99J.  While  the  purity  is  slightly 
lower  than  the  other  tin  smelted  in  Malaya,  it'  is  of  a  smoother 
quality  and  is  preferred  by  American  millers. 

Tin  ore  brought  to  the  Straits  Settlements  from  Banka  (Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies),  China,  and  Bolivia  smelts  to  a  fineness  of  99J 
and  has  a  white  sheen.  Notwithstanding  its  greater  fineness,  it  is 
less  satisfactory  to  American  mills. 

There  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  tin  smelted  in  the  Federated 
Malay  States  by  Chinese  smelters  using  old  Chinese  methods,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  State  of  Selangor.  This  tin  is  said  to  be  of  the 
same  fineness  and  quality  as  that  of  the  other  Federated  Malay 
States. 

TAXES  AND  DUTY  ON  TIN. 

A  duty  is  levied  on  all  tin  exported  from  the  Federated  Malay 
States.  This  difi^  is  calculated  on  a  sliding  scale.  With  tin  at 
£150  a  ton  London,  $75  Straits  currency  a  picul  ($42.58  mint  par 
U.  S.  per  133J  pounds) ,  the  duty  works  out  at  13  per  cent  of  the  value 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


203 


of  the  tin  exported.  The  amount  of  duty  collected  in  1918  was 
£1,535,239  (about  $13,142,054  Straits  currency).  While  the  export 
duty  on  tin  is  high,  it  must  be  recognized  that  this  is  practically  the 
only  form  of  taxation  to  which  mining  is  subjected.  The  rental  of  $1 
Straits  currency  (2s.  4d.)  per  acre  on  mining  land  is  low.  All 
mining  machinery  and  stores  come  into  the  country  free  of  duty. 
The  revenue  from  the  tin  duty  is  employed  in  the  development  of  the 
country,  improvement  of  roads,  etc.,  which  directly  assists  operating 
conditions  and  cheapens  transportation.  In  a  comparison  of  taxa¬ 
tion,  direct  and  indirect,  which  is  levied  in  other  countries  on  min¬ 
ing  industries  the  duty  on  tin  will  not  be  found  as  excessive  as  it 
first  appears.  In  special  cases,  such  as  opening  up  new  fields,  the 
Government  has  relaxed  somewhat  the  general  rate  of  duty. 

The  following  table  shows  the  exports  of  tin  from  the  Straits 
Settlements,  by  countries,  in  piculs  of  133 J  pounds: 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

Piculs. 

United  Kingdom . 

591,625 

596, 476 

381, 760 

421, 232 

449, 481 

174, 454 

324, 076 

224, 608 

British  India  and 

Ceylon . 

Honkong . 

30,985 

28, 398 

23,757 

24, 070 

24, 162 

24,  504 

40, 797 

37, 095 

5,650 

2, 756 

1, 005 

9,096 

4,208 

612 

60, 769 

7,238 

Canada . 

Australia . _ . 

4,292 

1, 262 
420 

2,185 

673 

1,515 

67 

504 

1,848 

17 

5,883 

554 

Other  British . 

Netherlands . 

335 

85 

421 

306 

361 

1,978 

2, 608 

1,343 
3, 362 
49, 278 

105 

1,092 

47,815 

France . 

81,326 

66, 849 

78, 911 

71,361 

100, 470 

100, 410 

China . 

2,961 

1, 565 

2, 170 

268 

875 

504 

8, 693 

1,906 

Japan . 

13,227 

13,495 

15, 944 

20, 577 

28, 216 
392, 327 

12,  789 

33, 948 

16, 333 

United  States . 

297, 955 

325, 079 

542, 404 

472, 076 

577,  800 

453, 623 

472, 374 

All  other . 

76,251 

75,908 

107, 199 

76, 167 

72,415 

30,  556 

19, 193 

13,360 

Piculs . 

1,104,607 

1,112,714 

1, 155,641 

1, 095, 881 

1, 075, 714 

924,750 

996,947 

828,363 

Equivalent  in 

metric  tons... 

66, 824 

67,315 

69,912 

66,297 

65, 076 

55,944 

60,312 

50, 113 

OTHER  MINING  IN  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Aside  from  tin  mining,  coal  mining  is  the  most'  important  branch 
of  the  mining  industry  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  While  there 
is  a  possibility  of  development  of  other  coal  deposits,  the  only  coal 
mining  of  importance  is  that  of  the  Malayan  collieries,  about  25 
miles  from  Kuala  Lumpur.  This  company  was  incorporated  in  1911, 
and  is  said  to  have  produced  over  10,000,000  tons.  The  output  in 
1920  was  247,917  tons,  which  can  be  greatly  increased.  With  this 
object  in  view,  an  officer  of  the  above  company  is  touring  the  United 
States  investigating  various  methods  of  mining  coal,  since  the  pro¬ 
duction  is  far  short  of  the  present  demand,  and  wood  for  fuel  is 
becoming  scarce.  There  are  few  opportunities  for  development  of 
hydroelectric  power,  but  as  the  Malayan  Government  is  investigating 
this  subject  it  is  possible  that  new  power  plants  will  be  built.  The 
dredges  near  Taiping  are  mostly  using  wood,  but  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  procuring  it  in  sufficient  quantities  some  companies  are 
obliged  to  import  coal  at  a  high  cost. 

Gold-quartz  mining  has  been  carried  on  at  different  times  in  Pa¬ 
hang  and  Negri  Sembilan  without  much  success,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  Paub  mine  in  Pahang,  which  produced  about  12,000  ounces  in 
1920,  as  compared  to  a  total  gold  production  in  the  Federated  Malay 
States  of  less  than  13,000  ounces.  .  There  is  some  alluvial  gold  in 
Perah  and  in  Negri  Sembilan,  but  no  gold  mining  of  importance  is 
carried  on. 


204  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Tungsten. — In  many  parts  of  the  Federated  Malay  States  wolf¬ 
ram  and  scheelite  are  found,  generally  intermixed  with  tin  ore. 
The  production  of  tungsten  ores,  stimulated  by  high  prices,  increased 
during  the  war,  but  has  since  fallen  off.  Production  was  as  follows: 
1918,  5,971  piculs;  1919,  7,323  piculs;  and  1920,  6,345. 

COAL  MINING. 

In  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  there  are  now  three  coal  mines 
operated  by  the  Government — the  Ombilin,  the  Poeloe  Laoet,  and  the 
Boekit-Asem.  The  Ombilin  mines  are  in  Sumatra,  above  Padang, 
on  the  west  coast.  Coal  was  discovered  there  in  1868,  and  mining 
began  in  1892.  The  coal  field  is  9  by  10  kilometers,  the  bed  reaching 
a  thickness  of  23  meters.  Poeloe  Laoet  is  a  small  island  lying  off 
the  southeast  coast  of  Borneo.  Mining  began  by  private  enterprise 
in  1903,  but  in  1913  the  Government  took  over  the  work.  The  center 
of  the  coal-mining  operations  is  Stagen. 

A  large  part  of  the  labor  at  the  Ombilin  mines  is  convict.  At 
the  end  of  1918  the  number  of  convicts  employed  was  3,377,  out  of  a 
total  of  7,650  laborers.  Favorable  results  are  obtained  by  making 
contracts  with  released  convicts  who  have  good  conduct  records. 

At  Poeloe  Laoet  the  work  is  chiefly  done  by  Javanese  contract 
coolies,  the  number  employed  in  1918  averaging  2,639.  The  work 
at  the  Boekit-Asem  collieries  is  chiefly  confined  to  day  labor,  the 
production  amounting  to  50,000  tons  in  1918,  as  compared  to  121,000 
tons  at  Poeloe  Laoet. 

The  Ombilin  is  the  most  important  field.  The  quantity  of  coal  is 
estimated  at  200,000,000  tons,  of  which  a  total  of  7,291,425  tons  was 
mined  from  1892  to  1919.  The  coal  burns  readily  and  contains  but 
a  small  per  cent  of  ash.  The  greater  part  of  the  coal  was  formerly 
sold  to  individual  buyers,  but  during  the  war  Government  depart¬ 
ments  used  a  large  part,  increasing  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total  output 
from  1918. 

The  Boekit-Asem  collieries  are  situated  near  Tandjoeng,  in  the 
Residency  of  Palembang,  Sumatra.  This  concession  was  taken  over 
by  the  Government  in  1919  and  plans  were  made  for  operating  on  a 
large  scale. 

A  large  amount  of  coal  is  still  imported.  The  annual  consumption 
of  coal  has  increased,  according  to  an  article  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indian  Archipelago,  from  600,000  tons  in  1914  to  1,000,000  at'  present. 
Plans  for  a  greatly  increased  production  are  being  made  by  the 
Government.  Following  are  the  Government  statistics: 


Year. 

Production. 

Book  value 
of  the 
enterprise. 

Receipts. 

Working 

expenses. 

Net  profits 
alter 

deducting 
share  paid 
to  Sumatra 
Railroad. 

1910 . 

Metric  tons. 
387, 522 
406, 395 
507, 452 
411,071 

443. 141 

453. 141 
505,356 

508.226 

504.226 

Florins. 

3, 139, 931 
3, 094, 027 
3,231,704 
3, 733, 090 
4, 054, 604 
4, 784, 514 
5, 240, 683 
4,264, 762 
4, 595, 063 

Florins. 
3,520,240 
3, 609, 018 
3, 614, 208 
3, 678, 138 
4, 104, 689 
4,201,031 
4, 578, 969 
4, 647,031 
7,029,395 

Florins. 

3, 142, 145 
3, 250, 924 
3, 276, 068 
3, 309, 051 
3, 604, 954 
3, 537, 039 
3,781,792 
3,970,516 
6,370,174 

Florins. 
378,094 
358,094 
338, 140 
369,087 
338,909 
482, 162 
591,084 
507, 232 
659, 131 

1911 . 

1912 . 

1913 . 

1914 . 

1915 . 

1916 . 

1917 . 

1918 . : . 

MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


205 


The  figures  covering  the  import  of  coal  into  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  are  not  published  in  the  annual  returns.  The  following  fig¬ 
ures  from  the  Market  Report  and  Prices  Current  of  the  Commercial 
Association  of  Soerabaya  relate  to  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera 
only: 


Countries  of  origin. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
693 
14,367 

Metric  tons. 

United  Kingdom . 

British  East  Africa . 

860 
4, 867 
10,004 
2, 300 
51, 121 
3,715 
102, 968 
4 

British  South  Africa . 

198 
800 
800 
81, 185 

746 
16, 946 
3,030 
31, 159 

British  India . 

China . 

Japan . 

Dairen . 

Australia . 

7,697 

55, 635 

4 

All  other . ; . 

Total . 

90,680 

122, 580 

175, 839 

Imports  of  coal  for  the  first  four  months  of  1919,  1920,  and  1921 
(Java  and  Madoera  only)  were  as  follows: 


Countries  of  origin. 

1919 

1920 

1921 

United  Kingdom . 

Metric  tons. 
40 
65 
4,667 
21,601 
1,620 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
5, 450 
5,720 
11,616 
113,624 
4 

British  India . 

2,079 

14,043 

22,527 

861 

Japan . 

Australia . % . 

All  other . 

Total . 

27,993 

39,510 

136,414 

The  output  of  State  coal  mines  from  1910  to  1920,  by  years,  was  as 
follows : 


Metric  tons. 


1910  _  387,  522 

1911  _  406,  395 

1912  _  407,452 

1913  _ 411,071 

1914  _  443,141 

1915  _  453,141 


Metric  tons. 

1916  _  505,366 

1917  _  508,226 

1918  _  504,226 

1919  _  739,475 

1920  _  978,484 


Following  is  the  output  of  these  mines  for  the  first  five  months  of 
1921 : 


Month. 

Ombilin. 

Boekit- 

Asem, 

Palembang. 

Poeloe 

Laoet 

January . 

Metric  tons. 
45,925 
46, 863 
48, 499 
46,997 
45,971 

Metric  tons. 
11,903 
9,669 
9,952 
10,315 
12,347 

Metric  tons. 
14,232 
14,767 
15,314 
15, 226 
14,294 

February . 

March . . 

April . 

May . 

No  figures  are  available  showing  the  output  of  the  privately  owned 
mines  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bandjermasin  and  at  other  points. 
While  this  output  was  comparatively  small,  it  was  important. 


206 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  Koninklijki  Paketvaart  Maatschappij  is  developing  a  coal 
field  in  eastern  Borneo  to  supply  fuel  for  their  steamers,  but  no 
data  are  available  showing  the  progress  of  this  work. 

The  sale  of  coal  to  ships  is  carried  on  by  the  following  companies : 
The  Nederlandsch  Indische  Steenkolen  Mij.,  which  has  bunkering 
facilities  at  Tandjoengpriok  (Batavia’s  harbor),  Tjilatjap,  Soera- 
baya,  and  Macassar;  the  Internationale  Crediet  en  Handelsvereeni- 
ging  “  Rotterdam,”  a  subsidiary  of  the  Royal  Dutch  Mail  lines ;  and 
the  Zeehaven  en  Kolenstation  Sabang,  which  has  a  coaling  station 
at  Sabang,  off  the  coast  of  northern  Sumatra. 

PETROLEUM  PRODUCTION. 

The  chief  centers  of  petroleum  production  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  are  the  Langkat  district,  East  Coast  dependency,  and 
the  Perlak  district,  Atchin  Residency  of  North  Sumatra.  In  south¬ 
ern  Sumatra  there  are  important  fields  in  the  Palembang  and  Djambi 
Residencies.  The  producing  fields  of  Java  are  found  in  the  Resi¬ 
dencies  of  Soerabaya  and  Rembang. 

In  Borneo  petroleum  occurs  in  commercial  quantities  in  the  east 
central  part  or  in  the  Koetei  district  of  the  south  and  east  division. 
There  are  also  producing  fields  in  the  small  islands  of  Tarakan  and 
Boenjoe  off  the  northeast  coast  of  Borneo.  The  island  of  Ceram,  in 
the  Amboina  Residency,  has  come  into  production  during  the  last 
few  years. 

The  oil-bearing  formations  occur  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  of 
the  Tertiary,  the  depth  of  the  wells  generally  ranging  from  200  to 
600  meters.  The  deepest  well  is  1,000  meters  and  is  in  east  Java. 
There  are  six  petroleum  refineries,  situated,  respectively,  at  Pang- 
kalanbrandan  (north  Sumatra),  Pladjoe  and  Bangoes  Koening 
(south  Sumatra),  Tjepoe  and  Wonokromo  (east  Java),  and  Balik- 
papan  (east  Borneo).  The  products  are  benzine,  kerosene,  turpene, 
fuel  oil,  asphalt  and  coke,  lubricating  oil  and  greases,  paraffin  wax, 
etc.  Nearly  all  of  the  Sumatra  crudes  are  especially  rich  in  light 
products  and,  generally  speaking,  contain  little  or  no  paraffin.  The 
Borneo  crudes  vary  considerably  in  composition  in  the  same  field. 
The  Java  oils  yield,  as  a  rule,  little  benzine.  Some  crudes  do  not  con¬ 
tain  even  kerosene ;  others  are  of  a  strong  paraffin  base.  The  factor¬ 
ies  at  Java  and  Borneo  put  a  large  quantity  of  the  finest  paraffin  wax 
on  the  market.  A  large  part  of  the  wax  is  used  for  candles,  which, 
on  account  of  the  high  melting  point  of  Borneo  paraffin,  are  par¬ 
ticularly  suitable  for  use  in  the  Tropics. 

The  principal  companies  operating  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  are 
subsidiaries  of  the  Royal  Dutch,  which  completed  its  first  well  in 
1890  in  the  district  of  Langkat.  A  refinery  was  completed  at  Pang- 
kalanbrandan  in  1892.  The  district  in  which  this  first  oil  enterprise 
was  established  was  a  tropical  wilderness,  almost  unpopulated.  In 
1900  the  compan)^  drilled  at  Perlak  and  brought  in  several  wells,  all 
spouters.  In  1910  the  company  acquired  the  Shanghai  Laukat  Co., 
which  owned  oil  fields  near  Tandjoengpoera,  in  the  Langkat.  Work 
was  started  in  Borneo  in  1901.  In  1907  the  Bataafsche  Petro¬ 
leum  Maatschappij  was  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  the  Royal 
Dutch  and  the  Shell  Transport  &  Trading  Co.  In  1905  the  Royal 
Dutch  extended  its  operations  to  Java,  and  in  1911  secured  control  of 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


207 


the  Dordtsche  Petroleum  Maatschappij.  The  Bataafsche  Petroleum 
Maatschappij  is  now  the  dominant  company  in  the  Netherlands  East 

Indies. 

Most  of  the  crude  petroleum  is  transported  by  pipe  lines  to  the 
refineries.  The  most  important  pipe  lines  are  4  and  5  inch  lines, 
87  miles  long,  from  Kamp  Minyak  to  Pladjoe;  a  4-inch  line,  141  miles 
long,  from  Melamoen  to  Pladjoe;  and  a  5-inch  line,  65  miles  long, 
from  Sanga  Sanga  to  Balikpapan  (Borneo).  Many  smaller  lines 
are  in  operation.  Steel  tanks  are  used  for  storage.  Whites  number¬ 
ing  800,  mostly  Europeans,  and  23,000  natives  and  Chinese  are  em¬ 
ployed.  Annual  production  now  exceeds  13,000,000  barrels. 

Petroleum  production  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  from  1910  to 
1921  was  as  follows: 


1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 


Dutch 

Borneo. 

Java. 

Sumatra. 

Ceram. 

Total. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

633,472 

147, 833 

718,940 

1, 500, 245 

814, 707 

172,438 

683, 423 

1, 670, 568 

672, 438 

186, 083 

660, 874 

1,519, 395 

766,687 

197,027 

562, 185 

1,525,899 

866, 718 

226, 589 

475, 423 

4S6 

1, 569, 216 

893, 890 

256,838 

491,611 

1,101 

1,643,440 

957, 395 

243, 442 

526, 080 

3,264 

1,730,181 

869, 262 

252, 813 

666, 278 

2, 256 

1, 790, 609 

999, 426 

241,212 

519, 989 

3,574 

1,764,201 

1,372, 140 

258,655 

521, 756 

7,311 

2, 159, 862 

1, 455, 227 

352, 474 

536, 482 

21, 137 

2,365,320 

1, 436, 779 

279, 825 

595, 643 

49, 262 

2,361,509 

Note. — Production  figures  for  1910  to  1918,  inclusive,  were  taken  from  the  Official  Yearbook  of  the  Bureau 
of  Mines_,  Dutch  East  Indies;  figures  for  1919  to  1921  were  furnished  by  the  American  consul  at  Batavia. 
Production  of  Java  includes  that  of  Madoera  after  1913. 


GOLD. 

It  has  been  known  for  years  that  gold  existed  in  the  Netherlands 
Indies,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  old  Hindus  worked  gold  mines  in 
Sumatra  and  other  points,  notably  at  the  Salida  mine  on  the  West 
Coast.  The  United  East  Indies  Co.  attempted  to  work  this  mine, 
and  their  greatest  production  was  between  the  years  1690  and  1694. 
when  ore  of  the  value  of  174,000  florins  was  exported.  This  com¬ 
pany  also  attempted  mining  in  Java  and  the  Celebes.  After  that 
interest  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  gold-ore  deposits  practically  died 
out,  until  the  discovery  of  Redjang  Lebong,  in  Sumatra,  and  of 
Paleleh  and  Totok,  in  Celebes,  caused  considerable  excitement. 

In  the  last  50  years  about  140  societies  or  companies  were  formed, 
with  a  combined  capital  of  fully  111,000,000  florins,  for  the  mining 
of  precious  metals  in  the  Netherlands.  Sixteen  societies  reached  the 
producing  stage.  At  the  end  of  1917  there  Avere  still  eight  of  these 
in  existence.  The  total  production  to  the  end  of  1917  amounted  to 
about  102,000,000  florins,  with  total  dividends  of  18,610,000  florins. 
Of  these,  however,  15,500,000  florins  must  be  credited  entirely  to  the 
Redjang  Lebong  mine. 

Gold  is  found  in  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Celebes  in  beach,  alluvial, 
and  lode  deposits.  In  1914  there  had  been  granted  58  concessions  for 
prospecting  and  working  gold  and  silver  mines,  but  alluvial  mining 
and  dredging  have  met  with  poor  success.  Natives  carry  on  primi¬ 
tive  operations  in  certain  portions  of  the  country,  but  the  important 


208  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

operations  are  in  the  Lebong  district,  which  is  about  57  kilometers 
north  of  Benkoelen.  The  best  known  mine  is  the  Redjang  Lebong. 
The  formations  are  granite  and  limestone,  generally  with  some 
andesite  and  trachyte.  Veins  are  at  times  badly  faulted.  The  gangue 
is  finely  banded  quartz  with  small  amounts  of  cal  cite.  Treatment 
is  by  stamp  and  tube  mills,  and  the  sands  and  slimes  after  separa¬ 
tion  are  cyanided. 

Another  gold  district  is  in  northern  Celebes,  where  there  are  three 
producing  mines.  At  the  Totok  mine  gold  is  found  in  pockets  and 
stringers  in  metamorphic  limestone.  A  third  "old  district  where 
development  is  as  yet  only  in  an  initial  stage  is  in  central  Sumatra. 

The  quantity  and  value  of  gold  and  silver  produced  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  are  as  follows  (1  kilo=2.204  pounds;  1  florins 
$0,402  mint  par) : 


Year. 

Gold. 

Value. 

Silver. 

Value. 

1910 . 

Kilos. 

4,847 

4,236 

4,002 

3.865 

3,503 

4,052 

4,814 

3,893 

2,971 

Florins. 

7,935.913 

7,505,381 

6,594,120 

6,369,198 

5,772,941 

6,671,167 

6,285,631 

6.415,257 

4;  896, 906 

Kilos. 

15,977 

15.831 

14.258 

17,212 

32,555 

41,663 

37,516 

34,014 

28,626 

Florins. 
666,952 
684,027 
697, 125 
827,176 
1,434,299 
1,661,959 
1,980,967 
2,225,920 
2,220,206 

1911 . . 

igia . 

1913 . 

1914 . 

i915 . 

1916 . 

1917 . 

1918 . 

IRON. 


Iron  ores  are  widespread  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  and  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  iron  and  steel  products  formed  a  branch  of  early  native 
industry  in  some  parts  of  the  archipelago,  for  instance,  with  the 
Dyaks,  in  the  district  of  Sampit*  and  Kotawaringin,  southern  and 
eastern  section  of  Borneo,  and  in  the  lake  region  of  middle  Celebes. 

As  a  result  of  the  war  the  first  Netherlands  Indies  smelting  com¬ 
pany  was  established  by  private  enterprise  for  the  working  of  the 
very  pure  magnetite  ores  of  the  Lampong  district,  and  the  Service 
of  Mining  Affairs  sent  out  four  expeditions  to  ascertain  to  what  ex¬ 
tent  in  this  archipelago  a  raw  material  base  is  present  to  assure  the 
existence  of  an  important  iron  industry.  The  results  of  these  in¬ 
vestigations,  especially  with  reference  to  the  capacity  of  those  de¬ 
posits,  were  generally  not  satisfactory.  Two  of  the  prospecting 
parties  directed  their  attention  to  the  southern  and  eastern  section 
of  Borneo,  one  for  the  examination  of  the  deposits  of  the  Tanah 
Laoet  and  the  other  for  the  section  Kotawaringin.  While  the  ore  is 
often  of  good  quality,  the  deposits  are  generally  small.  Of  the 
larger  deposits,  the  Way-waya  is  estimated  at  800,000  tons,  the  total 
of  the  different  deposits  in  the  Ranggal  zone,  which  is  5  kilometers 
in  length,  being  estimated  at  2,000,000  tons  at  least,  and  4,000,000 
tons  at  most.  The  latter  is  quite  the  most  important  ore  accumu¬ 
lation  of  this  type  which  is  known  in  the  Netherlands  Indies.  The 
greatest  deposit  of  Kotawaringin,  that  of  Gg.  Karim  and  Gg. 
Segaloeng,  is  reckoned  at  80,000  tons. 

The  two  other  parties  directed  themselves,  respectively,  to  the 
islands  of  the  Laoet  Straits,  including  the  neighboring  mainland  of 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


209 


Borneo,  and  to  the  so-called  lake  region  of  middle  Celebes,  and  both 
were  able  to  prove  the  presence  of  more  important  quantities  of  iron 
ore  of  good  quality.  Ore  in  the  examined  portion  of  the  Larona 
field  is  estimated  at  373,000,000  tons,  of  which  about  12,000,000  tons 
is  hard  ore.  This  proportion  between  hard  and  soft  ore  is  more 
favorable  than  at  Cuba.  The  total  quantity  of  ore  in  all  the  known 
ore  fields  of  the  lake  region  is  estimated  at  fully  a  thousand  million 
tons. 

OTHER  MINERALS. 

Manganese. — The  quantity  of  manganese  ore  which  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  has  so  far  produced  amounts  to  about  30,000  tons.  This 
production  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  concession  of  Keliripan, 
section  Koelon  Progo,  Djokjakarta,  granted  in  1893.  The  work  was 
done  by  primitive  methods  and  was  discontinued  when  the  inflow 
of  water  in  the  mine  was  such  that  it  could  not  be  coped  with.  Some 
time  ago  the  concession  passed  into  other  hands,  and  it  appears  that 
the  development  will  be  continued  on  more  modern  lines. 

Copper. — Copper  ore  is  found  distributed  throughout  the  archipel¬ 
ago,  not  only  on  the  large  islands  but  also  on  a  great  many  of  the 
smaller  ones,  but  nothing  of  much  economic  importance  has  so  far 
been  developed. 

Lead  and  zinc. — Lead  and  zinc  ore  minerals  are  found  with  gold 
and  silver  ore  formation  of  Sumatra,  and  at  the  probably  similar 
deposits  of  north  Celebes.  The  known  deposits  which  owe  their  im¬ 
portance  particularly  to  the  presence  of  lead  and  (or)  zinc  ore  are 
small  in  number.  _  . 

Antimony. — Small  quantities  of  antimonite  appear  to  have  been 
exported  formerly  from  Tanah  Boemboe  (section  Doesoen  landen). 
At  Celebes  antimonite  is  found  together  with  copper  ore  at  the 
Boekai  deposits  and  with  galena  to  the  southeast  of  Sassak.  It  also 
occurs  in  Java  and  is  found  on  a  small  scale  near  Buitenzorg.  Anti¬ 
monite  is  well  known  to  the  native  inhabitants  and  is  employed  by 
the  female  portion  for  cosmetic  purposes. 

Arsenic. — This  metal  is  found  as  arsenopyrites  in  greisen  at 
Banka,  and  in  small  quantities  in  lodes  of  the  tertiary  gold  and  silver 
formations. 

Bismuth. — Bismuth  occurs  in  small  quantities  in  the  gravel  of  a 
few  streamlets  in  the  peninsula  of  Somasir,  in  the  Batak  country. 
Trie  inhabitants  formerly  searched  for  the  metal  in  war  time,  in 
order  to  cast  bullets  from  it.  Wherever  exploitation  was  attempted 
the  deposit  was  found  to  be  unimportant. 

Chromium. — Chromium  in  the  form  of  a  streaky  deposit  of 
chromium  iron  ore  of  small  extent  in  the  peridotite  has  so  far  been 
found  in  one  place  only,  between  Waraoe  and  Balambano,  in  the  Ver- 
beek  Mountains.  In  other  places  also  where  ultrabasic  rocks  occur  the 
presence  of  the  ore  is  known — in  Timor  (near  Atapoepoe)  and  in  a 
couple  of  places  along  the  coast  of  Poeloe  Laoet. 

Mercnry. — Mercury  in  the  form  of  cinnabar  is  met  with  in  gravels 
in  the  western  section  of  Borneo,  and  sometimes  with  gold.  In  the 
southern  and  eastern  sections  of  Borneo,  also,  mercury  seems  to  have 
been  found  in  the  native  gold  diggings. 

In  Java  cinnabar  occurs  together  with  gold  in  the  sand  of  the 
coast  near  the  village  of  Djoentin,  district  Karang  Ampel,  Resi- 


210 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


dency  of  Cheribon,  and  again  at  the  source  of  the  Kali  Toentang, 
section  Salatiga,  Residency  of  Semarang. 

Molybdenite. — Molybdenite  is  found  in  small  irregular  seams  in 
the  western  section  of  Borneo  and  also  in  Singkep,  Billiton,  and 
Banka. 

Nickel. — Nickel  ores,  in  "widely  distributed  deposits  of  small  extent, 
occur  in  the  east  Celebes  together  with  the  iron  ores  in  the  peridotite 
region  of  the  Verbeek  Mountains.  In  general  the  nickel  content 
of  the  ore  ranges  from  2J  to  3  per  cent.  The  highest  assay  obtained 
gave  25.81  per  cent  of  nickel.  At  an  experimental  operation  4  to  5 
per  cent  lots  of  several  tons  were  obtained.  The  iron  ores  of  the 
Verbeek  Mountains  have  also  a  nickel  content  that  is  of  technical 
importance,  from  one-half  to  1  per  cent  and  over  of  NiO.  An  in¬ 
vestigation  of  some  of  these  deposits  is  being  carried  out  by  the 
Government. 

Platinum. — Platinum  occurs  almost  everywhere  in  the  gold-bear¬ 
ing  ground  of  the  section  of  Martapoera  (south  and  east  section  of 
Borneo),  but  seldom  in  any  considerable  quantity.  The  total  pro¬ 
duction  is  between  one-half  and  1  kilo  per  year. 

Wolframite. — Wolframite  is  found  in  salable  quantities  by  the 
Billiton  Maatschappij,  chiefly  from  the  deep  mines  of  Tikoes,  where 
it  occurs  together  with  tinstone  in  irregular  quartz  stocks  in  greisen. 
A  little  wolframite  is  also  won  by  the  Singkep  Maatschappij.  At 
Banka  it  has  so  far  only  occasionally  been  met  with  in  alluvial  tin- 
ore  deposits. 

Building  materials. — Marble  quarries  are  found  in  Java.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  limekilns  and  manufactories  for  building  ma¬ 
terial.  Near  Padang  a  Portland  cement  factory  has  been  estab¬ 
lished  since  1911,  where  over  200,000  barrels  of  cement  are  produced 
annually. 

Diamonds . — Some  diamonds  are  found  in  Martapoera,  in  the  south 
and  east  division  of  Borneo.  There  were  13,000  licenses  for  dia¬ 
mond  diggings  granted  in  1918.  The  value  of  diamonds  produced 
in  1918  was  116,360  florins. 

MINING  LAWS. 

The  most  important  mines  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are 
operated  by  the  Government,  the  Billiton  being  the  exception  to 
the  general  rule.  The  concession  on  this  property  expires  in  1927 
and  it  is  not  yet  known  whether  it  will  be  renewed  or  the  operation 
continued  under  Government  direction.  The  present  terms  call  for 
a  payment  to  the  Government  of  five-eighths  of  the  profits  received, 
and  a  proposal  in  1917  for  renewing  the  lease  was  refused  by  the 
Government. 

Prospecting  licenses  are  required  for  exploration,  and  concessions 
must  be  secured  for  working  mineral  deposits.  These  are  restricted 
to  Dutch  subjects,  inhabitants  of  Holland  or  Netherlands  East 
Indies.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  a  foreign  company  could  operate 
in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  by  having  a  Dutch  representative 
with  power  of  attorney  to  act  as  agent  in  securing  licenses  and  con¬ 
cessions. 

Private  parties  having  licenses  or  concessions  are  subject  to  cer¬ 
tain  conditions  regarding  duration  of  work,  Government  taxes,  se- 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


211 


curity,  transfer,  and  Government  supervision,  set  forth  in  the  mining 
act  of  1899,  which  was  revised  in  1910  and  again  in  1919.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  this  latest  revision,  aside  from  rights  already  granted,  no  more 
concessions  will  be  granted,  except  under  certain  conditions,  to 
private  individuals  for  the  so-called  minerals,  i.  e.,  anthracite  and 
all  kinds  of  coal,  petroleum  products,  asphalt  earthwax,  and  other 
bituminous  substances,  solid  as  well  as  liquid,  and  inflammable  gases, 
among  which  iodine  and  allied  substances  are  ranged. 

The  following  extract,  relating  to  the  conditions  imposed  upon 
prospecting  license  holders,  is  from  the  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal  of  December  4,  1920: 

Prospecting  license  holders  must  pay  to  the  Government  a  fixed  land  tax  of 
1  cent  per  hectare;  concession  holders,  10  cents  per  hectare.  In  addition  the 
license  holder  must  pay  a  royalty  of  4  per  cent  of  the  market  value  of  pro¬ 
duction  obtained  in  the  course  of  prospecting,  of  which  amount  a  ‘portion  is 
free  from  royalty.  Concession  holders  pay  in  addition  to  fixed  land  tax  a 
royalty  of  4  per  cent  of  the  gross  proceeds.  Mining  regulations  also  provide 
for  safe  operation. 

From  a  later  publication  it  appears  that  prospecting  licenses  for 
petroleum  are  confined  to  an  area  not  more  than  25,000  acres  and 
several  licenses  may  be  applied  for  simultaneously.  The  holder  of 
the  license  is  compelled  to  prove  diligent  effort  at  the  end  of  each 
year.  Concessions  are  confined  to  an  area  of  not  more  than  10,000 
acres,  the  whole  of  which  must  be  confined  within  one  prospecting 
area,  but  several  concessions  may  be  granted  within  the  same  license 
after  proving  the  existence  of  petroleum  in  commercial  quantities. 
Petroleum  mining  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  has,  however,  been 
brought  almost  entirely  under  Dutch  control. 

[Note. — In  so  much  of  the  foregoing  chapter  as  relates  to  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  the  1920  yearbook  of  that  country  lias  been  freely  drawn  upon, 
as  has  also  an  article  in  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  of  December  7, 
1920,  and  various  papers  read  before  the  General  Engineering  Congress  at 
Batavia  in  1920.] 

TITLES  TO  MINING  PROPERTIES. 

Titles  to  all  mining  properties  in  British  Malaya  are  held  by  the 
State.  All  landowners  hold  their  property  under  terminal  or  per¬ 
petual  leases  from  the  Government  and  pay  an  annual  rental  for 
their  title  to  possession.  The  rent  for  mining  land  is  usually  $1 
Straits  currency  (2s.  4d.)  per  acre.  Leases  are  ordinarily  granted  for 
21  years,  and  may  be  renewed  for  further  periods  if  the  terms  of 
the  lease  have  been  complied  with.  The  terms  are  not  onerous,  the 
general  obligations  being  that  the  lessee  will  work  the  land  prop¬ 
erly,  not  causing  damage  to  other  lands,  keep  one  man  employed  to  the 
acre  or  the  equivalent  in  labor-saving  devices,  and  observe  the  regula¬ 
tions  in  force  for  the  safety  of  laborers  employed  on  the  land.  Min¬ 
ing  leases  do  not  include  mineral  oil  and  shales. 

Supervision  of  operations. — Supervision  of  mining  operations  in 
each  State  is  under  a  warden  or  assistant  warden  of  mines.  There 
is  also  a  senior  warden,  who  is  responsible  to  the  chief  secretary  or 
resident  in  each  State  for  the  proper  administration  of  mining  af¬ 
fairs  and  the  general  supervision  of  all  mining  operations.  In  ad¬ 
dition,  there  is  a  staff  of  inspectors  of  mines,  machinery,  electrical 
plant,  etc.  No  officer  of  the  mines  department  has  any  executive 
work  in  connection  with  the  leasing  of  mining  lands,  his  work  being 

19878°— 23 - 15 


212 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


chiefly  the  supervision  and  control  of  mining  operations,  the  guard¬ 
ing  of  State  and  private  property,  and  the  settlement  of  disputes 
between  the  owners  of  mining  lands. 

HYDRAULIC  POWER. 

Electricity  generated  from  water  power  or  from  steam  or  oil 
engines  is  used  at  some  mines  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  One 
dredge,  the  Bentong ,  has  a  hydroelectric  power  plant,  and  the  Yukon 
Gold  Co.’s  dredge  will  also  use  electricity.  The  first  power  unit  of 
the  Yukon  Gold  Co.  plant  will  be  electrically  generated  from  steam 
turbine  engines.  Several  sites  have  been  investigated  by  the  Yukon 
Co.  and  plans  made  for  a  hydroelectric  plant  for  future  dredges. 
The  Government  is  also  taking  steps  toward  the  development  of  a 
hydroelectric  plant  when  favorable  conditions  obtain.  The  total 
horsepower  of  plants  registered  and  operated  in  1920  was  87,000, 
against  83,800  in  operation  in  1919.  The  plants  in  1920  were  dis¬ 
tributed  approximately  as  follows:  Steam,  714;  oil  engines,  245;  and 
gas  engines,  31. 

Electricity  is  not  yet  extensively  used  in  mining — about  9,500  kilo¬ 
watts  for  power  purposes  and  217  kilowatts  for  light.  Two  Diesel 
engines  for  generating  electricity  aggregating  900  kilowatts  were  in 
course  of  construction  during  1920,  and  other  plants  for  generating 
electric  power  will  be  installed  in  the  future,  as  a  great  saving  in 
operating  costs  can  be  made  in  this  way. 

PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  UTILIZATION  OF  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 

The  following,  regarding  the  present  and  future  utilization  of 
hydraulic  power  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  was  translated 
from  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  A.  Groothoff,  former  chief  of  the  Hy- 
drotechnical  Service,  before  the  Royal  Institute  of  Engineers: 

Since  1910,  when  the  first  Director  of  the  Department  of  Government  In¬ 
dustries  entered  upon  his  duties,  the  Government  began  to  take  the  study 
of  the  problem  of  hydraulic  power  in  the  archipelago  in  hand,  the  purpose  in 
view  being  at  the  outset  only  confined  to  the  future  electrification  of  the  State 
railways,  but  which  was  also  extended  later  on  to  the  supplying  of  a  more 
powerful  source  of  energy  as  an  important  factor  for  the  industrial  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  Indies. 

Since  August,  1917,  the  new  service  of  water  power  and  electricity  has  been 
detailed  to  utilize  in  a  practical  way  the  hydraulic  energy,  now  for  the  greater 
part  still  lying  dormant  in  different  parts  of  this  island  empire,  as  well  in  the 
interest  of  the  State  as  in  that  of  private  industry.  The  central  office  of  this 
service  is  established  at  Bandoeng  and  comprises  three  technical  divisions,  viz, 
the  Division  of  Electricity,  the  Building  Division,  and  the  Hydrotechnical  Di¬ 
vision.  The  Division  of  Electricity  carries  out  all  work  which  is  to  be  done 
in  electrotechnical  lines,  the  Division  of  Building  attends  to  the  building  of 
the  Government  power  stations,  and  the  task  of  the  Hydrotechnical  Division 
comprises  the  systematic  searching  for  and  examination  of  water  powers,  the 
drawing  up  of  an  inventory  of  those  powers,  and  the  subsequent  enlightenment 
of  interested  parties  who  wish  to  utilize  them.  The  natural  conditions,  which 
everywhere  contribute  to  create  important  water-power  supplies,  may  be  said 
to  be  very  favorable  in  these  countries.  Among  the  favorable  factors  should  be 
mentioned  the  following : 

(A)  The  heavy  tropical  rainfall  (which  in  Java  attains  an  average  of  from 
3,000  to  4,000  millimeters  per  year,  even  in  the  more  mountainous  regions 
reaching  8,000  millimeters),  which  causes,  notwithstanding  the  dry  east  mon¬ 
soon,  to  have,  under  normal  conditions,  always  sufficient  river  water  at  dispo¬ 
sition  for  hydraulic  power. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


213 


(B)  The  large  lakes  in  Sumatra  and  central  Celebes,  the  virgin  forests  in 
Borneo,  as  well  as  the  snow  and  ice  clad  summits  of  the  mountains  of  New 
Guinea,  which  all  regulate  the  supply  of  water  to  the  rivers,  which  are  depend¬ 
ent  upon  those  conditions. 

(C)  The  vertical  shape  of  the  large  islands,  causing,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
formation  of  extensive  basins  of  the  rivers  with  high  conveyance  figures  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  elevations  of  ground,  which  are  highly  suitable  for  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  hydraulic  powTer. 

According  to  a  very  rough  estimate,  which  does  not  include  the  smaller  is¬ 
lands  and  the  as  yet  little  known  Dutch  part  of  New  Guinea,  the  minimum 
capacity  of  hydraulic  power  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  amounts  to  5,500,000 
horsepower,  viz :  Java,  500,000  horsepower ;  Sumatra,  2,000,000  horsepower ; 
North  Borneo,  2,000,000  horsepower;  and  Celebes,  1,000,000  horsepower. 

The  regions  containing  the  most  water  power  are  west  Java  (especially  the 
mountain  region),  north  Sumatra  (especially  the  Asahan  region),  central 
Borneo,  and  the  lake  territory  of  central  Celebes. 

I.  West  Java  is  the  part  of  the  island  containing  the  most  hydraulic  power, 
and  in'  this  region  the  utilization  of  hydraulic  power  has  been  the  most 
developed.  This  applies  as  well  to  enterprises  undertaken  by  private  persons 
as  by  the  Government.  In  west  Java  there  are  actually  large  hydraulic  power 
stations  being  built,  which  will  supply  the  necessary  energy  for  the  following : 

(a)  Electric  railways,  Priok-Batavia-Buitenzorg. 

(&)  Different  purposes  at  Batavia  and  suburbs  and  at  Buitenzorg. 

(c)  The  general  supply  of  electricity  of  Bandoeng  and  the  neighborhood  of 
the  radio  station  at  Malabar  on  the  Pangalengan  Plateau. 

The  State  hydraulic  works,  in  course  of  construction  in  the  Tji  Anten 
(River  Anten)  near  Buitenzorg  (28,000  installed  horsepower),  and  near  the 
Tji  Tjatih  (7,500  horsepower),  to  the  south  of  the  first  station,  are  destined 
to  generate  the  large  top  charges  of  the  projected  electric  railways.  There 
is  being  built  the  State  hydraulic  powder  station  in  the  Tji  Kapoendoeng,  near 
Dago  (3,000  horsepower),  and  in  the  Tji  Saroewa,  a  branch  river  of  the  Tji 
Sangkoej  (4,500  horsepower),  near  Pangalengan. 

Furthermore,  there  are  also  being  built  two  caloric  stations,  viz,  a  small 
auxiliary  station  of  400  horsepower  at  Bandoeng  (Tji  Hapit),  in  order  to 
reinforce  temporarily  the  already  overcharged  old  station  near  Dago,  and  a 
second  station  of  about  1,000  horsepower,  south  of  Bandoeng  (Dajeuh  Kolot), 
for  radio  purposes.  Both  stations  may  later  on  cooperate  with  the  four 
already  mentioned  hydroelectric  stations,  when  this 'is  necessary  during  the 
dry  monsoon. 

Among  river  basins  offering  a  profusion  of  hydraulic  power  should  be  men¬ 
tioned  the  following: 

First.  The  Tji  Mandiri  territory,  with  an  aggregate  capacity  of  18, GOO 
horsepower  on  8  points  (the  largest  energy  source  has  at  least  5,000  horse¬ 
power). 

Second.  The  Tji  Taroem  territory,  with  43,700  horsepower  on  10  points 
(largest  energy  source  at  least  12,500  horsepower,  to  be  supplied  by  the  second 
Tji  Sangkoej  hydraulic  power  station,  now  being  studied). 

Third.  The  Tji  Laki  territory,  with  31,500  horsepower  on  4  points  (largest 
energy  source  at  least  15,000  horsepower). 

Fourth.  The  Tji  Manoek  territory,  with  30,100  horsepower  on  7  points 
(largest  energy  source  at  least  10,000  horsepower). 

In  these  four  territories  together  there  is  thus  a  total  available  hydraulic 
power  aggregate  of  at  least  123,900  horsepower,  or  about  one-fourth  of  the 
total  estimated  capacity  of  the  important  hydraulic  forces  above  1,000  horse¬ 
power  in  Java. 

The  region  of  the  Preanger  Regencies  contains  most  of  the  hydraulic  power  of 
the  entire  island.  Here  are  about  two-thirds  of  the  hydraulic  installations  for 
private  enterprises,  namely,  about  240,  with  a  total  capacity  of  approximately 
9,000  horsepower,  as  against  about  12,000  horsepower  in  the  whole  island.  It 
is  also  remarkable  that  6,000  horsepower,  or  nearly  95  per  cent  of  the  hydraulic- 
power  energy  installed  in  tea  factories,  has  been  centralized  in  the  Preanger 
Regencies. 

II.  Central  Java,  which  comprises  the  Residencies  of  Pekalongan,  Semarang, 
Banjoemas,  Kedoe,  Djokjakarta,  and  Soerakarta,  is  not  so  rich  in  hydraulic 
power  as  west  Java. 

Yet  also  here  various  important  sources  of  hydraulic  power  have  been  discov¬ 
ered,  especially  in  the  Serajoe  Basin,  in  the  Toentang  and  in  some  rivers  along 


214  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


the  north  coast.  In  the  Toentang  13,000  horsepower  has  been  found  to  be 
available,  which  may  be  worked  in  three  or  four  stations.  The  most  favorable 
portion  of  the  basin,  that  in  which  the  Toentang  cataracts  are  situated,  has 
already  been  given  out  for  exploitation  to  the  A.  N.  I.  E.  M.  (General  Nether¬ 
lands  Indian  Electric  Co.),  which  company  has  since  1913  worked  at  that  spot 
a  hydroelectric  station  with  an  installed  capacity  of  2,200  kilowatts  for  supply¬ 
ing  electricity  to  Semarang  and  Salatiga. 

On  behalf  of  the  Government  a  project  has  been  drawn  up  for  a  larger 
hydraulic  power  house  on  the  Toentang  River,  which  may  also  serve  to  supply 
energy  to  the  Netherlands  Indian  Railway  Co. 

In  this  river  an  important  amount  of  hydraulic  power  is  stored,  which  will 
become  available  after  construction  of  the  projected  Rawa-Pening  Reservoir, 
having  a  capacity  of  237,000,000  cubic  meters.  Upon  the  completion  of  this 
reservoir  the  supply  of  available  river  water  will  be  doubled,  which  will  enable 
the  utilizing  of  an  additional  13,000  horsepower.  Also  the  Serajoe  River,  in 
mid-Java,'  may  come  into  consideration  as  an  important  source  of  energy. 

III.  East  Java.- — In  east  Java,  on  behalf  of  the  Government,  only  a  relatively 
small  number  of  energy  sources  has  been  discovered.  The  smaller  hydraulic 
sites  are  here  quite  numerous,  and  their  energy  is  being  utilized  by  several 
estates.  With  regard  to  the  larger  hydraulic  sources  of  more  than  1,000  horse¬ 
power,  the  rivers  in  east  Java  are  not  nearly  so  destitute  as  many  suppose  on 
the  strength  of  climatological  factors.  Since  1917  the  Government  station  in 
the  Tjatoer  Valley  has  been  exploited  to  supply  energy  to  the  State  railway 
workshops  near  Madioen.  This  power  station  has  two  turbines  of  1,000  horse¬ 
power  each,  operating  under  a  head  of  110  meters.  The  headrace  has  a  total 
length  of  2,200  meters,  in  which  there  have  been  constructed  two  tunnels,  one  of 
291  and  the  other  of  44S  meters  length.  The  electric  energy  is  conveyed  under 
26,000  volts  along  a  transmission  line,  21  kilometers  in  length,  rigged  on  iron 
masts,  to  the  substation  at  Madioen.  Plans  have  been  drawn  up  for  the  build¬ 
ing  of  a  Government  hydraulic-power  plant  along  the  Kali  Konto,  with  a 
capacity  of  10,000  horsepower,  destined  for  the  electrification  of  the  State  rail¬ 
way  lines  in  and  near  Soerabaya,  and  at  the  same  time  for  the  general  supply 
of  electricity  in  the  districts  of  Soerabaya,  Kediri,  and  Pasoeroean. 

The  hydraulic  forces  in  the  Kapongan  main  canal  are  being  reserved  for 
general  purposes  (radio  station,  pumping  up  of  irrigation  water,  and  the  illu¬ 
mination  of  Sitoebondo). 

IV.  South  Sumatra. — The  works  already  completed  and  the  plans  being 
taken  in  study  in  south  Sumatra  may  be  divided  into  the  following  large 
groups : 

(A)  The  many  primitive  native  water  wheels,  which  chiefly  serve  to  drive 
the  rice-husking  mills  in  Benkoelen. 

(B)  The  pretty  large  hydraulic  power  plants  of  the  private  mining  com¬ 
panies  and  the  State  mine,  Tambang  Sawah,  in  Benkoelen.  Simau  has  har¬ 
nessed  1,300  horsepower  on  the  Ajer  Loesang  and  Ajer  Gloemboek.  Red- 
jang  Lebong  disposes  of  1,550  horsepower  in  four  plants  in  the  basin  of  the 
Ajer  Ketahoen  and  gets  its  supplementary  energy  from  the  State  water¬ 
power  plant,  situated  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Tes,  in  which  two  aggre¬ 
gates  of  1,000  horsepower  each  have  been  constructed.  This  power  plant, 
built  for  the  State  gold  and  silver  mine,  is  in  operation,  its  construction  hav¬ 
ing  taken  three  years. 

(C)  The  hydraulic  power  plants  for  various  agricultural  estates  in  Palem- 
bang. 

(D)  The  plans  to  utilize  power  in  connection  with  the  following  indus¬ 
trial  operations:  (a)  For  the  manufacture  of  nitrogen  fertilizers,  for  which 
purpose  concession  has  been  given  to  draw  the  water  from  the  Moesi  River 
or  from  the  Ranau  Lake,  with  a  tunnel  through  the  Barisan  (mountain  range) 
to  the  Indian  Ocean;  (&)  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  the  Lampong  dis¬ 
trict,  for  which  purpose  permission  has  been  asked  to  draw  the  water  from 
the  Wai  Sekampoeng  and  the  Wai  Besai. 

For  the  future  the  hydraulic  forces  in  south  Sumatra  represent  a  consid¬ 
erable  reserve  for  the  supply  of  hydraulic  power  in  Java,  which,  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  its  population  and  future  industrial  development,  is  not  so  very  large. 
The  great  distances  of  some  hundreds  of  kilometers  will  certainly  not  form 
a  drawback  against  that  time,  nor  will  the  crossing  of  Soenda  Straits. 

V.  Mid-Sumatra. — For  mining  and  industrial  purposes  the  following  hy¬ 
draulic  power  plants  exist  at  present; 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


215 


(a)  A  hydraulic  power  plant  of  1,000  horsepower  for  the  mine  Tambang 
Salida  on  the  Salida  River. 

(ft)  On  the  Padang  River  a  plant  of  1,500  horsepower  to  supply  energy  to  the 
Netherlands  Indian  Portland  Cement  Factory  at  Indaroeng. 

(c)  A  second  hydraulic  power  station  for  the  cement  works  mentioned  above, 
in  course  of  construction  on  the  Koerandji  River,  having  a  capacity  of  about 
3,000  horsepower. 

( d )  Various  hydraulic  power  plants  of  the  Mining  Company  Equator  at 
Manggani,  having  an  aggregate  capacity  of  about  1,000  horsepower. 

(e)  Three  plants,  with  a  total  of  275  horsepower,  for  the  mine  Kinandam. 
On  behalf  of  the  Government,  so  far  the  following  hydraulic  forces  have  been 
explored  in  these  regions:  (1)  In  the  Ombilin  River,  16,000  horsepower;  (2) 
in  the  Agam  River,  two  of  10,000  horsepower;  (3)  in  the  Anei  River,  4,000 
horsepower. 

VI.  North  Sumatra. — So  far  as  known,  the  greater  part  of  the  water  power  of 
the  island  of  Sumatra  is  to  be  found  in  the  northern  part,  which  comprises  the 
districts  of  Tapanoeli,  Sumatra’s  East  Coast,  and  Atcheen.  On  four  exploration 
expeditions,  of  which  three  were  sent  to  the  Asahan  territory  and  one  to  the 
Peusangan  River,  there  has  been  investigated  a  total  of  800,000  horsepower. 
Also  the  upper  stream  basin  of  the  rivers  in  the  territory  under  cultivation 
in  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  contains  many  sites  of  hydraulic  power,  although 
of  modest  capacity. 

The  great  problem  regarding  hydraulic  power  in  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra 
is  the  utilization  of  the  Asahan  water  powers.  Along  this  river,  which  flows 
from  Toba  Lake,  at  least  600,000  horsepower  may  be  harnessed  in  three  or  four 
consecutive  power  plants.  Of  this  horsepower,  200,000  has  been  given  out  in 
concession  for  building  a  factory  for  manufacturing  nitrogenous  manure,  as 
well  as  for  other  electrochemical  industries.  The  plans  have  reached  a  very 
advanced  stage  of  preparation  and  are,  according  to  authorities,  very  promis¬ 
ing. 

So  far  as  known,  nowhere  else  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  is  such  an 
enormous  capacity  found  so  close  together,  within  a  radius  of  about  10  kilo¬ 
meters,  which  may  be  utilized  at  such  low  figures  as  to  the  costs. 

In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  cost  price,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
energy  transported  in  a  quantity  of  from  10,000  to  20,000  horsepower  over  a 
distance  of  about  200  kilometers  to  the  neighborhood  of  Medan  should  at  the 
latter  place  cost  no  more  than  that  supplied  by  the  new  Government  hydraulic 
power  plants  in  the  Preanger  Regencies,  viz,  a  few  cents  per  kilowatt-hour. 

Also  for  the  future  electric  railways  in  the  basin  of  Toba  Lake,  with  its 
steep  slopes,  energy  will  be  supplied  from  the  Asahan  River,  for  which  purpose 
part  of  the  available  power  has  already  been  reserved. 

VII.  Borneo. — Hidden  in  impenetrable  virgin  forests,  far  in  the  interior, 
gigantic  energy  is  stored  in  the  streams  of  the  large  rivers  Kapoeas,  Baritoe, 
Mahakam  (Koetei  River),  and  Kajan,  all  of  which  are  fed  by  the  inexhaustible 
equatorial  rains  of  Borneo. 

A  very  small  corner  of  the  veil  which  covers  from  sight  the  enormous  quan¬ 
tities  of  energy  lying  dormant  in  those  regions  was  lifted  temporarily  in  1918  by 
A.  G.  A.  van  Eelde,  civil  engineer,  who  has  explored  the  Bern  Brem  Falls  in 
the  Ka.ian  River.  Many  hundred  thousands  of  horsepower  were  shown  to 
exist  in  the  basin  of  the  Bern  Brem  Falls,  of  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  detailed 
hydrometrical  and  topographical  data  have  been  given.  The  economical  value 
of  these  mighty  hydraulic  powers,  though  naturally  cheap  to  harness  and 
work,  is  actually  still  small  on  account  of  the  great  distance  from  the  coast 
and  the  extraordinary  difficulties  a*id  excessive  costs  which  the  establishment 
of  industries  to  be  operated  by  them  entails  in  such  a  primitive  country  as 
Borneo.  On  that  account  the  Government  does  not  find  it  necessary  to  make 
special  hydraulic-power  investigations  in  this  island. 

VIII.  Celebes. — In  Celebes  the  Service  of  Hydraulic  Power  and  Electricity 
made  sure  of  the  following  hydraulic  powers  in  1918  and  1919 : 

(a)  Malili  Basin,  total  about  150,000  horsepower  in  four  power  plants. 
These  power  plants  are  being  reserved  for  the  future  development  of  the  iron 
and  nickel  industries.  The  first  one  is  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  important  Larona  iron-ore  field.  The  head  varies  from  25  to  SO  meters, 
and  the  energy  costs  approximately  35  florins  per  kilowatt-year. 

(b)  Laa  Basin,  where  a  minimum  of  about  50,000  horsepower  is  waiting  to 
be  worked. 


216  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


(c)  Posso  Basin,  between  Posso  Lake  and  the  sea.  Two  energy  sources  of 
100,000  horsepower  each,  situated  in  Posso  Lake,  have  been  investigated. 

By  the  Mamasa  River  about  100,000  horsepower  may  be  developed  from  the 
Garoegoe  Falls. 

The  Minahasa  (north  Celebes)  will  soon  be  investigated,  in  view  of  the 
possible  laying  out  of  electric  tramways. 

The  above  survey  and  figures  demonstrate  plainly  that  in  regard  to  hydraulic 
power  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  is  indeed  blessed,  the  more  so  because  the 
hydraulic  power  in  general  will  not  cost  much  more  to  work  than  it  does  in 
Europe. 

In  British  Malaya  there  is  a  project  in  the  earlier  stages  of  develop¬ 
ment  to  carry  water  from  the  hills  of  the  State  of  Johore  to  Singa¬ 
pore,  crossing  the  Straits  of  Johore  on  the  causeway  now  under  con¬ 
struction.  The  pipe  line  has  been  surveyed  and  plans  are  in  readiness 
for  the  completion  of  the  Johore  causeway. 

In  Kedah  there  is  a  project  for  carrying  water  through  a  pipe  line 
to  Alor  Star.  This  project  is  at  present  in  abeyance,  but  may  be 
revived  at  any  time. 

The  water  power  on  the  western  slope  of  the  cordillera  contiguous 
to  the  points  where  power  is  needed  has  been  developed  in  a  rather 
haphazard  way.  A  commission  has  been  appointed  to  make  a  thor¬ 
ough  survey  of  the  possibilities  of  generating  more  power.  It  is  not 
expected  that  this  commission’s  report  will  be  ready  before  1924. 


FISHERIES  PRODUCTS. 

SHELLS  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  INDIES. 

The  shells  exported  from  the  Netherlands  Indies  are  divided  by 
the  customs  authorities  into  four  divisions — pearl  (called  M.  O.  P., 
for  mother-of-pearl),  troca,  burgos,  and  flores  shells. 

Pearl  shells  are  divided  by  the  trade  into  two  classes,  white  mother- 
of-pearl  and  yellow-lip  mother-of-pearl.  The  white  mother-of-pearl 
comes  chiefly  from  the  Aroe  Islands,  off  the  coast  of  New  Guinea. 
The  pearl-fishing  concession  for  those  islands  is  held  by  one  company, 
having  its  head  office  in  Macassar,  Celebes.  Other  white  mother-of- 
pearl  comes  from  the  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ternate,  in  the 
Moluccas.  The  yellow  mother-of-pearl  has  a  yellow  border  around 
the  edge  or  “  lip  ”  of  the  shell.  The  quality  is  said  to  be  inferior  to 
that  of  the  white  shells.  They  are  found  in  the  waters  close  to  the 
island  of  Ceram,  off  the  island  of  Tanimbar,  in  the  Banggai  Archipel¬ 
ago,  and  near  the  islands  of  Timor  and  Flores.  One  Arab  and  two 
European  fleets  are  operating  on  a  large  scale,  and  native  fishermen 
also  send  considerable  quantities  of  shell  to  Macassar,  which  is  the 
principal  market  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  for  shells. 

Burgos  or  “  green  snail  ”  shells  come  from  the  waters  of  the  Smaller 
Soenda  Islands  and  Timor,  Flores,  Soenda,  Soembawa,  and  other 
islands.  Only  native  fishermen  are  engaged  in  this  industry.  Before 
the  war  exports  of  these  shells  were  somewhat  evenly  divided  between 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  France,  and  by  1918 
the  exports  dropped  almost  to  the  vanishing  point,  largely  due  to  the 
prices  offered.  The  export  figures  for  1920  are  not  available,  but  it 
is  said  that  the  United  States  has  been  in  the  market  for  small  quan¬ 
tities,  and  considerable  shipments  have  been  going  to  Japan. 

Troca-shell  fishing  is  also  a  native  industry,  carried  on  in  the  same 
waters  where  the  burgos  shells  are  found.  France  took  the  major 
portion  of  these  shells  before  the  war,  while  large  quantities  went  to 
Penang  and  Singapore.  To-day  Japan  is  paying  prices  that  draw 
practically  the  whole  production  to  its  factories.  This  shell  is  of  poor 
quality,  making  a  very  cheap  button. 

Flores  shells  also  come  from  the  Smaller  Soenda  Islands,  and  the 
fishing  is  all  done  by  the  natives.  Before  the  war  much  the  largest 
part  went  to  Germany  and  Austria.  The  decrease  in  demand,  due 
to  war  conditions,  has  cut  down  the  production  of  this  industry  ma¬ 
terially,  and  such  exports  as  are  now  made  go  largely  to  Japan.  The 
shell  is  small  and  of  a  poor  quality. 


217 


218  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Exports  of  shells  from  the  Netherlands  Indies,  by  countries,  for 
1913,  1917,  1918,  and  1919  are  given  below. 


[In  metric  tons.] 


Countries  to  which 

1913 

1917 

exported. 

Pearl. 

Troca. 

Burgos. 

Flores. 

Pearl. 

Troca. 

Burgos. 

Flores. 

Netherlands 

40 

7 

2 

United  States . - 

13 

35 

121 

6 

Great  "Britain 

420 

26 

3 

Germany  . . 

4 

10 

30 

117 

France.! . 

49 

726 

41 

14 

Penang  and  Singa¬ 
pore . 

26 

578 

7 

7 

16 

238 

13 

2 

Hongkong . 

2 

3 

9 

Japan. . . 

4 

1 

i 

1 

898 

11 

Total . 

558 

1,317 

147 

141* 

150 

1, 136 

30 

2 

1918 

1919 

Netherlands . 

46 

24 

45 

77 

United  States. . 

63 

'  114 

45 

28 

Great  Britain . 

24 

17 

14 

France . 

8 

Penang  and  Singa¬ 
pore . 

2? 

218 

9 

7 

107 

468 

25 

5 

Hongkong . 

4 

10 

Japan . 

6 

1, 135 

1 

50 

7 

593 

Total . 

100 

1, 353 

10 

57 

308 

1,085 

132 

132 

SHELL  TRADE  OF  THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

The  activity  of  the  shell  industry  in  the  Straits  Settlements  is 
given  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Mother-of -pearl  shells.— In  1919,  1,417  piculs  (133^  pounds  each) 
of  mother-of-pearl  shells,  valued  at  S$87,748,  were  imported  into 
Singapore.  (One  Straits  dollar=$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.)  The 
exports  were  3,640  piculs,  valued  at  S$278,693,  mainly  to  the  United 
Kingdom  and  France;  Japan  took  650  piculs,  valued  at  S$38,426. 

The  London  market  has  been  reflected  directly  in  the  trade  of 
Singapore.  The  low  prices  offering  have  stopped  operations  in  the 
Philippines  and  reduced  production  in  the  Moluccas. 

The  imports  from  the  Netherlands  Indies  reach  Singapore  through 
the  Chinese  merchants  and  are  sold  by  them  direct  to  exporters. 

Green  snail  shells. — In  1919,  3,123  piculs  of  green  snail  shells, 
valued  at  S$102,468,  were  imported  into  Singapore  and  Penang. 
These  came  mainly  from  British  North  Borneo,  China,  the  Smaller 
Soenda  Islands  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  and  the  Philippines.  The 
export  amounted  to  only  2,349  piculs,  valued  at  S$57,364,  and  went 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  Hongkong,  and  French  Indo-China. 
Since  that  time  the  Japanese  have  been  buyers  at  low  prices,  accord¬ 
ing  to  trade  authorities,  and  the  export  has  been  largely  to  Japan. 
Imports  are  through  Chinese  houses,  which  have  close  connections 
in  the  production  districts. 

Troca  shells. — In  1919,  16,684  piculs  of  troca  shells,  valued  at 
S$620,939,  were  imported  into  the  Straits  Settlements.  Celebes  and 
the  Moluccas  are  listed  as  the  point  of  origin  of  these  shells  to  the 


FISHERIES  PRODUCTS. 


219 


value  of  S$239,421 ;  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Bali  and  Lombok,  and  other 
Dutch  islands  are  listed  as  the  point  of  origin  for  shells  to  the  value 
of  S$151,391;  the  Philippine  Islands,  S$101,730;  China  and  French 
Indo-China,  S$62,600;  Siam,  S$4,240;  British  possessions,  S$61,437; 
and  all  others,  S$120.  Singapore’s  imports  were  valued  at  S$611,974, 
and  those  of  Penang  at  S$8,965. 

The  points  of  origin  of  these  imports  can  not  be  taken  as  indicating 
the  point  of  production.  The  largest  item  is  shown  as  coming  from 
Celebes  and  the  Moluccas.  These  shells  came,  in  fact,  from  Macassar, 
but  were  shipped  to  that  port  from  the  Smaller  Soenda  Islands,  and 
the  imports  from  Sumatra  probably  originated  in  the  same  district. 
They  are  imported  by  Chinese  merchants  through  their  branches 
and  agents  in  the  countries  of  origin  of  imports. 

All  of  the  Straits  Settlements  exports  of  troca  shells  were  made 
from  Singapore  in  1919,  the  values  being  as  follows:  United  King¬ 
dom,  S$37,100;  France,  S$165,382;  China,  S$3,000;  Japan,  S$581,716; 
all  other  countries,  S$75;  total,  S$787,273. 


INDUSTRIES. 

NUMBER  IN  OPERATION. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Industry,  and  Commerce  has 
recently  published  a  list  of  the  industries  of  the  colony  showing  the 
name,  the  type  of  organization  and  authorized  capital,  the  names 
of  the  owners,  directors  and/or  representatives,  the  location  of  the 
factory,  the  articles  produced,  the  number  of  European  and  non- 
European  employees,  the  type  of  power  used,  and,  in  some  instances, 
the  name  of  the  manager,  the  codes  used,  the  cable  address,  and  the 
capacity.  Following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  industries  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies. 

Ceramics . — The  Dutch  artisans  have  taught  the  local  tile  makers 
to  burn  ornamental  tiles  and  some  fairly  good  work  is  turned  out, 
although  it  is  not  equal  to  the  Dutch  tiles.  Some  roofing  and  flooring 
tiles  of  fair  quality  are  made  in  the  kilns  throughout  the  colony,  but 
most  of  them  are  brittle  and  liable  to  break  under  a  sudden  change  in 
temperature  or  through  careless  handling.  The  better  class  of  houses 
are  roofed  with  the  better  grade  of  burnt  tiles  or  with  cement  tiles, 
while  houses  of  cheaper  construction  are  roofed  with  the  cheaper 
burnt  tiles.  The  ordinary  native  lives  in  a  house  roofed  with  nipa 
or  sago  palm  leaves.  Water  jars,  some  cooking  utensils,  and  stoves 
are  made  of  rough  pottery,  the  latter  being  used  by  all  classes  of  the 
population.  The  most  elementary  tools  only  are  used  in  this  industry. 

Manufactures  of  quarry  products. — A  modern  cement  mill  with 
three  kilns  is  in  successful  operation  near  Padang,  Sumatra  West 
Coast,  and  plans  for  extension  are  maturing.  Limestone  is  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  archipelago  and  burning  is  done  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Dutch,  Chinese,  and  Arabs  and  by  native  burners,  the 
latter  generally  on  a  small  scale.  Marble  is  imported  from  Europe 
and  worked  in  many  of  the  cities  in  Java,  where  it  is  used  for  floor¬ 
ing  in  the  better  class  of  houses.  Some  marble  is  reported  to  be 
quarried  in  Cheribon  and  Ivediri  Residencies  in  Java.  Factories 
for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  marble  and  pumice  cement  are  re¬ 
ported  to  be  under  construction.  Flooring  and  siding  blocks  are 
made  from  lava  found  in  central  Java. 

Glass  industry. — A  Netherlands  company,  with  its  Indian  office 
at  Soerabaya,  is  reported  to  be  preparing  to  manufacture  glass 
bottles.  At  present  all  bottles  for  the  very  considerable  local  trade 
are  imported,  principally  from  Japan.  About  28,000  dozen  bottles 
for  aerated  water  were  imported  in  1919.  No  glass  was  manufac¬ 
tured  in  the  colony  up  to  the  beginning  of  1921.  Four  companies 
under  Dutch  management  manufacture  art-glass  windows. 

Rice  mills. — The  large  number  of  rice  mills  throughout  the  colony 
are  principal^-  under  Chinese  control,  some  being  under  Arab  and 

220 


INDUSTRIES. 


221 


native  management,  and  a  few  large  mills  are  owned  by  Dutch  and 
English  companies. 

Bakeries. — In  the  larger  cities  are  a  few  bakeries  operated  by 
Europeans,  but  most  of  the  baking  of  bread  and  pastry  is  done  by 
the  Chinese.  Brick  ovens  are  used.  Australian  flour  is  used  for 
bread,  and  for  pastry  some  China  flour. 

Conserves. — At  Bandoeng  is  located  an  extensive  factory  for  pre¬ 
served  food,  while  two  smaller  factories  are  located  in  central  Java. 
Their  principal  outlet  is  to  the  Dutch  Army. 

Meats. — Five  slaughterhouses  under  European  management  are 
operating  in  the  colony,  but  no  meat  is  put  up  in  cans.  Slaughter¬ 
ing  is  done  throughout  the  colony  by  natives,  Chinese,  and  Arabs 
under  very  loose  control. 

Manufacturers  of  spirits. — There  are  34  spirits  distilleries  listed 
in  the  colony,  distilling  principally  from  molasses  and  rice,  although 
other  grains  are  used.  One  of  these  distilleries  has  a  paid-up  capi¬ 
tal  of  2,200,000  florins  (1  florin=$0.402  mint  par  U.  S.)  ,  and  others 
under  European  management  have  an  authorized  capital  of  from 
100,000  to  1,000,000  florins,  most  of  them  being  small.  The  Chinese 
are  most  numerous  in  this  industry,  but  are  organized  in  small-capi¬ 
tal  units. 

Mineral  waters ,  lemonade ,  and  sirups. — Eighty-one  factories  mak¬ 
ing  aerated  waters  are  listed.  The  trade  is  very  large,  proportionally, 
with  the  Europeans,  Chinese,  and  natives.  Being  a  Mohammedan 
country,  alcoholic  liquors  are  not  often  offered  socially  outside  of 
European  circles.  The  hot,  humid  climate  makes  frequent  drinking 
a  necessity,  and  courtesy  requires  that  some  sort  of  a  drink  be  offered 
to  guests.  Bottling  machinery  from  Europe  and  America  is  in  use. 
American  machinery  is  in  favor  with  the  Chinese  and  native  bottlers, 
and  a  considerable  extension  of  business  in  this  line  is  possible. 
The  units  are  necessarily  small,  as  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  busi¬ 
ness  to  decentralize.  Catalogues  printed  in  Dutch,  showing  small 
units,  together  with  prices  based  on  a  liberal  profit  to  the  Dutch 
importer,  if  sent  to  Chinese  merchants  in  all  the  towns  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Celebes,  should  show  returns,  provided  the 
Chinese  could  be  told  how  to  get  the  machinery  through  Netherlands 
East  Indian  channels. 

lee  factories. — There  are  66  ice  factories  listed,  most  of  which  are 
small  plants  at  minor  centers  of  population.  The  largest  organiza¬ 
tion  has  a  paid-up  capital  of  1,250,000  florins  ($500,000  mint  par 
U.  S.) ,  with  nine  plants  in  Soerabaya  and  near-by  towns,  and  employs 
25  Europeans  and  346  non-Europeans;  another,  at  Batavia,  has  an 
authorized  capital  of  900,000  florins  ($360,000)  and  employs  10 
Europeans  and  248  non-Europeans.  Many  of  the  ice  companies  also 
manufacture  mineral  waters. 

Little  ice  is  used  for  refrigeration  purposes,  most  of  it  being 
sold  in  small  units  to  drink  venders  and  other  natives  from  kiosks 
located  at  traffic  centers.  Iced  drinks  flavored  with  sirups  are  popu¬ 
lar  throughout  the  colony. 

Tobacco ,  cigars ,  and  cigarettes. — There  are  25  tobacco  cutters 
listed.  These  are  located  in  the  tobacco-growing  districts  and  all 
use  hand  power.  The  poorer  grades  of  tobacco  are  cut  fine  for  the 
use  of  the  natives  and  for  export,  that  for  export  going  mostly  to  the 


222  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

surrounding  Malay  countries  and  to  China.  Nearly  all  of  the  Java¬ 
nese  men  and  women  chew  and  smoke.  The  popular  native  smoke 
is  made  of  this  tobacco,  rolled  by  the  smoker  in  a  specially  grown 
and  prepared  leaf.  This  leaf  or  husk  is  an  article  of  general  local 
commerce. 

The  number  of  manufacturers  of  cigars  and  cigarettes  in  Java 

__  _  ©  © 

and  Madoera  is  listed  at  125.  There  are  also  manufacturers  in  other 
islands,  but  the  number  is  not  mentioned.  Five  companies  operate 
partly  with  machinery — one  at  Semarang  with  90  laborers  and  ma¬ 
chinery  driven  by  two  motors  with  a  total  of  20  horsepower;  one 
at  Semarang  with  from  150  to  200  laborers  and  5  to  7  horsepower; 
one  at  Ambarawa  (Semarang)  with  258  laborers  and  4  to  8  horse¬ 
power;  one  at  Djokjakarta  with  150  to  200  laborers  and  5  to  7 
horsepower;  and  one  at  Dj ember  with  400  laborers  and  10  horse¬ 
power. 

Salt  beds. — The  salt  beds  supplying  the  needs  of  the  population 
are  in  the  island  of  Madoera  and  are  under  strict  Government  con¬ 
trol.  The  two  important  undertakings  are  operated  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment,  one  at  Kalianget  (Madoera)  using  1,350  laborers  and  a 
Diesel  motor  generating  960  horsepower,  and  another  at  Ivrampon 
(Madoera)  using  950  laborers  and  a  steam  engine  generating  220 
horsepower.  At  both  these  plants  salt  briquets  are  made. 

Coffee  shelters  and  roasters. — Nearly  all  of  the  198  coffee  planta¬ 
tions  listed  have  machinery  and  equipment  for  shelling  and  prepar¬ 
ing  coffee.  Besides  these  plants  there  are  12  “  coffee  shellers  and 
roasters  ”  listed  which  cater  largely  to  the  local  consumers  of  coffee. 
All  but  three  of  these  are  power  driven,  the  largest  using  50  horse¬ 
power. 

Confectionery. — Three  companies  manufacturing  candies,  choco¬ 
lates,  and  lozenges  are  listed. 

Breweries. — There  is  one  brewery  in  the  colony,  located  at  Sema¬ 
rang,  using  a  steam  engine  generating  50  horsepower. 

Incense  manufacturers. — One  manufacturer  of  incense  is  located 
at  Macassar  (Celebes).  Besides  this  concern  many  Chinese  in  Java 
are  engaged  in  this  manufacture  in  a  small  way,  usually  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  other  business. 

Macaroni. — One  small  firm  is  making  macaroni  and  vermicelli  in 
Batavia. 

Fish  driers  and  preparers. — Only  six  companies  are  listed  under 
this  heading.  Fishing  and  drying  and  salting  is  a  large  business  in 
Sumatra,  but  it  is  carried  on  by  the  native  fishermen,  who  sell  their 
pack  to  the  Chinese  dealers. 

Opium  refiners. — The  refining,  preparing,  and  sale  of  opium  is 
operated  as  a  Government  monopoly. 

Quinine. — One  factory  (Bandoengsche  Kinnefabriek)  at  Ban¬ 
doeng,  Java,  is  extracting  quinine  from  cinchona  bark. 

Cocaine. — The  Java  Cocainefabrieken,  of  Soekaboemi,  is  the  only 
company  extracting  cocaine  in  the  colony. 

Explosives  and  fireworks. — The  Government  maintains  a  plant  at 
Bandoeng  for  the  manufacture  of  explosives  and  other  munitions. 
The  firm  of  George  Wehry  &  Co.  is  the  principal  manufacturer  and 
importer  of  dynamite.  Business  is  done  under  the  name  of  the 


INDUSTRIES. 


223 


Romaniet  Fabriek,  Weltevreclen.  There  are  11  manufacturers  of  fire¬ 
works  listed,  mostly  Chinese  with  small  capital. 

Sundry  chemical  manufactories. — Six  factories  are  listed  as  manu¬ 
facturing  carbonic  acid,  carbonic-acid  gas,  acetylene  gas,  and  other 
chemicals  for  the  industries.  Nine  factories  are  extracting  iodine, 
one  of  which  is  operating  on  a  large  scale.  Three  factories  are 
manufacturing  sulphite  and  bisulphite  of  soda.  Eleven  companies 
are  listed  as  manufacturing  chemicals  for  the  druggist  trade.  One 
gas  company  is  listed  as  producing  coal  tar.  Five  small  companies 
are  manufacturing  eau  de  cologne  for  the  domestic  trade.  Seven 
companies  are  listed  as  making  sulphur  products.  Besides  these  the 
Baatafsche  Petroleum  Mij.  is  manufacturing  sulphur  products  at  its 
works  at  Balikpapan  (Borneo)  and  Panglcalanbrandan  (Sumatra). 
One  company  is  manufacturing  calcium  carbide  in  Java.  Four  com¬ 
panies  are  listed  as  manufacturing  manures,  three  from  the  residue 
of  vegetable-oil  mills  and  one  from  animal  guano.  Four  companies 
are  listed  as  manufacturing  dyes,  colors,  paints  in  oil,  and  varnish, 
all  in  a  small  way.  Three  small  companies  are  listed  as  making  seal¬ 
ing  wax,  and  there  is  one  ink  factory.  Fifty-four  companies  and 
firms  are  listed  as  extractors  of  gambier.  These  are  mostly  Chinese 
in  Borneo  and  other  outlying  districts. 

Soap  factories. — Forty-seven  soap  factories  are  listed.  These  are, 
for  the  greater  part,  small  Chinese-owned  factories  employing  under 
25  laborers,  while  the  concerns  of  large  capital  make  soap  only  as  a 
by-product  of  their  other  manufactures,  such  as  the  vegetable-oil 
mills  and  chemical  factories. 

Metal  industries. — Construction  shops,  machine  ^hops,  and  found¬ 
ries  listed  number  84.  These  include  the  navy  shops,  the  railroad 
shops,  dry  docks,  shops  working  principally  for  the  sugar  mills  and 
other  industries,  shops  connected  with  the  machinery '  and  railroad 
equipment  importing  houses,  and  steel  construction  shops,  but  do 
not  include  automobile  repair  shops  nor  the  machine  shops  operated 
by  the  estates  for  their  own  work.  Most  of  the  sugar  estates  have 
machine  shops  and  some  of  them  have  foundries  for  the  lighter  re¬ 
pairs,  as  do  some  other  agricultural  undertakings,  such  as  rubber 
estates  and  tapioca  estates. 

Lumber  sawing  and  dressing  companies. — Of  the  136  lumber  saw¬ 
ing  and  dressing  organizations  within  the  colony,  30  are  equipped 
with  steam,  electric,  or  water  power  to  some  extent.  A  fe>v  of  these 
organizations  are  operating  on  a  fairly  large  scale,  using  logging 
machinery  and  fairly  modern  sawing  machinery,  but  most  of  them 
are  run  by  Chinese  and  Arabs,  who  employ  men  to  whipsaw  the 
logs  in  the  woods. 

Furniture  makers. — There  is  a  large  number  of  furniture  makers. 
All  but  a  few  of  the  shops  are  Chinese,  where  the  work  is  done  by 
hand.  The  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Mij.  (the  Interisland  Steam¬ 
ship  Company)  has  extensive  shops  for  furniture  making,  as  has 
also  the  Government’s  naval  establishment  at  Soerabaya. 

Carriage  and  wagon  makers. — Of  the  39  carriage  builders  listed, 
only  4  use  mechanical  power.  At  one  time  carriage  and  wagon 
building  was  an  extensive  industry,  but  automobiles  have  displaced 
carriages  to  a  great  extent. 

Dyers  and  batik  makers. — Over  400  dyers  and  batik  makers  are 
listed,  all  being  small  operators,  usually  made  up  of  family  groups. 


224 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Tanneries. — Only  a  few  of  the  16  tanneries  listed  are  of  any  conse¬ 
quence.  The  product  of  these  factories  is  used  by  the  local  shoe¬ 
makers. 

Shoemakers. — Eighty-five  shoemaking  establishments  are  listed, 
about  six  of  which  use  mechanical  power  of  some  description. 

Printers ’  supplies. — The  printing  industry  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  numbers  135  shops,  according  to  this  list,  50  of  which  use 
mechanical  power. 

In  general,  it  might  be  stated  that  most  of  the  industries  of  the 
colony  are  operated  in  connection  with  agricultural  undertakings. 
These  have  been  described  in  part  under  the  headings  of  the  various 
products. 

The  mills  operated  in  connection  with  the  mining  of  tin  and 
coal  are  important,  and  there  are  electrical  installations  in  the  vari¬ 
ous  large  centers  of  population  producing  energy  for  the  small  in¬ 
dustries. 

TRADE  IN  FIBER  HATS. 


By  Consul  Horace  Remillard,  Batavia,  Java. 

The  hat-making  industry  in  Java  began  as  far  back  as  1850  and 
was  greatly  expanded  after  1867,  when  it  was  gradually  perfected, 
so  that  at  the  present  time  various  shapes  and  varieties  are  made  to 
order.  Up  to  1906  only  bamboo  was  employed,  but  since  that  date 
imitation  Panama  hats  have  been  manufactured  of  panclan  fiber 
and  from  “  carludovica  palmosta.” 

The  hats  are  braided  in  concentric  circles  of  increasing  diameter, 
the  brim  being  attached  in  a  reversed  position,  while  a  block  pre¬ 
serves  the  shape  of  the  hat  itself.  Pandan  hats  are  usually  unlined. 
Bamboo  hats  .generally  have  a  coarse  braid  lining,  the  brim  of  the 
outer  hat  being  bent  around  the  edge  of  the  inner  hat  where  the  two 
are  joined. 

INCREASE  IN  PRICES. 


At  the  beginning  of  1919  the  world’s  market  was  understocked, 
and  especially  the  United  States  and  France,  the  principal  buyers, 
while  Java,  where  production  closely  follows  the  demand,  had  no 
large  reserve  supplies  available  for  exportation. 

Prices  at  the  beginning  of  1919  were  reasonable,  but  the  constantly 
increasing  demand  and  the  increased  wages  of  the  natives  caused 
prices  to  rise  to  limits  hitherto  unknown  for  pandan  as  well  as  for 
bamboo  hats.  For  example,  coarse  pandans  (pandan  000),  which 
at  the  beginning  of  1919  were  4|  to  6  florin  cents  ($0,018  and  $0,024, 
respectively)  first  costs,  according  to  size,  were  quoted  at  the  end 
of  December  at  6  to  9  florin  cents  ($0,024  to  $0,036,  respectively). 
For  bamboo  hats  the  rise  was  much  greater,  as  the  prices  at  the 
close  of  1919  were  double  those  of  1918. 

The  principal  cause  for  the  increased  value  of  these  hats  of  local 
manufacture  seems  to  lie  in  the  higher  cost  of  labor.  The  native 
hat  platter,  who  was  formerly  satisfied  to  earn  in  his  working  day 
25  to  30  florin  cents  ($0.10  to  $0.12),  at  present  earns  double  that 
amount. 


INDUSTRIES. 


225 


EXPORTS  OF  PANDAN  AND  BAMBOO  HATS. 

The  following  statistics  show  the  exportation  of  pandan  and  bam¬ 
boo  hats  from  1913  to  1919,  inclusive : 


Years. 

Bamboo 

hats. 

Pandan 

hats. 

Years. 

Bamboo 

hats. 

Pandan 

fbts. 

1913 . - . 

Number. 
6,548,000 
3, 480, 000 
3,332,000 
6, 276, 000 

Number. 

4, 238, 000 
3, 808, 000 
4, 008, 000 
2,072,000 

1917 . 

Number. 

2, 830, 000 
1,576,000 
4, 110, 000 

Number. 
3,353,000 
2, 655, 000 
5,751,000 

1914 . 

1918 . 

1915 . 

1919 . 

1916 . 

It  will  be  noted  that  5,751,000  pandan  hats  were  shipped  to  foreign 
countries  in  1919,  more  than  in  any  previous  year.  The  number  of 
bamboo  hats  exported  during  the  same  year  was  4,110,000  and  was 
only  surpassed  by  1916  and  1913,  when  6,276,000  and  5,548,000  hats, 
respectively,  were  shipped.  ' 

TRADE  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  following  statistics  show  the  number  of  pandan  and  bamboo 
hats  exported  to  the  United  States  from  1913  to  1919 : 


Years. 

Bamboo 

hats. 

Pandan 

hats. 

Years. 

Bamboo 

hats. 

Pandan. 

hats. 

1913 . 

Number. 

1, 560, 000 
1, 426, 000 
881,000 
2,119,000 

Number. 

1,716,000 

1,753,000 

928,000 

875,000 

1917 . 

Number. 

1, 161, 000 
331, 000 
442, 000 

Number. 

2, 875, 000 
1,918,000 
2, 155, 000 

1914 . 

1918 . 

1915 . 

1919 . 

1916 . 

The  foregoing  data  show  the  United  States  to  be  a  purchaser  of 
pandan  rather  than  of  bamboo  hats,  except  for  the  year  1916.  In 
1919  it  imported  2,155,000  pandan  hats,  or  37.4  per  cent  of  the  total 
exportation  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in  this  commodity,  while 
shipments  of  bamboo  hats  during  the  same  year  were  but  442,000,  or 
10.7  per  cent  of  the  total  exports  of  this  class  of  merchandise. 

INDUSTRIES  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  industrial  development  of  British  Malaya  is  mostly  concen¬ 
trated  in  the  territory  contiguous  to  the  railway  between  Singapore 
and  Penang  and  is  in  connection  with  the  needs  of  the  population  and 
the  production  of  rubber  and  tin.  There  is  a  cement  mill  at  Singa¬ 
pore  and  another  near  Kuala  Lumpur,  but  their  capacities  are  so 
small  that  they  can  not  supply  the  local  demand.  A  match  factory 
was  installed  near  Kuala  Lumpur,  but  it  has  never  reached  the  pro¬ 
ducing  stage.  Several  vegetable-oil  mills  have  been  in  operation,  as 
well  as  a  fertilizer  plant  near  Penang. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 

COTTON  GOODS. 


The  Netherlands  East  Indies  is  divided  into  eight  commercial 
units,  based  on  (1)  Soerabaya,  serving  a  population  of  16,200,000; 
(2)  Semarang,  10,000,000;  (3)  Batavia,  6,800,000;  (4)  Cheribon, 
4,400,000;  (5)  Medan,  1,700,000;  (6)  Padang,  2,000,000 ;  (7)  Singa¬ 
pore  (a  British  possession),  distributing  to  2,000,000  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies;  and  (8)  Macassar,  3,600,000.  The  accompanying  map 
shows  these  districts  with  the  major  and  secondary  market  cities. 
While  Singapore  is  a  British  port  and  in  many  of  the  phases  of  its 
trade  acts  as  a  transshipment  port,  it  is  the  primary  distributing 
point  of  cottons  for  western  Borneo  and  for  the  Palembang,  Djambi, 
and  Biouw  Pesidencies  in  Sumatra — a  large  area  comparatively 
thinly  populated. 

In  1919  the  per  capita  consumption  of  cotton  piece  goods  in  Java 
was  about  $1;  in  1920,  $2.50;  and  for  the  first  10  months  of  1921, 
$1.41. 

IMPORTATION  OF  COTTON  PIECE  GOODS. 

In  1913,  the  last  full  pre-war  year,  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
stood  sixth  in  the  list  of  countries  importing  cotton  piece  goods.  Inas¬ 
much  as  this  colony  has  no  local  manufacture  of  any  consequence,  its 
imports  may  be  assumed  to  represent  its  total  consumption.  The 
following  table  shows  the  1913  imports  of  the  30  principal  consuming 
countries  : 


British  India  _ 
China 

.  $197,  438,  869 
134,  580,  703 

United  States 

63,  935,  983 

United  Kingdom 

.  57, 103,  410 

Germany_ 

.  45,  529,  000 

Netherlands  East  Indies  38,  703,  402 

Argentina _  .  _ 

36,  925,  652 

Netherlands..  _ 

31,  397,  478 

Canada  _  . 

.  _  29, 449, 526 

Brazil 

21,771,703 

Egypt 

20.  036,  596 

Persia 

19, 173,  644 

France 

_  .  17,  246,  899 

Union  of  South  Africa _  15,  479,  951 

Switzerland  _ _ 

14,  406,  845 

Chile _ 

Russia _ 

Cuba _ 

Rumania _ 

Algeria _ 

Philippine  Islands- 

Belgium _ 

Austria-Hungary _ 

Italy - 

French  Indo-China 

Mexico _ 

Sweden _ 

Japan _ 

Portugal _ 

Spain _ 


$13,  546,  226 
12,  910,  740 
12,  514,  791 

II,  940,  000 

I II,  763,  929 
11,  733,  201 
11,  424,  880 
11,  265,  397 
10,  214,  547 

8,  016,  602 
2  6,  289,  979 
6, 133,  340 
5,  620,  028 
4,  013,  203 
3, 109,  606 


Imports  of  cotton  piece  goods  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by 
countries  of  origin,  since  1913  are  shown  in  the  following  table.  The 
values  are  given  in  1,000  florins,  the  par  value  of  the  florin 
$0,402. 


226 


1  Figures  for  1911. 


*  Figures  for  1912. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES 


227 


bureau  a  roR$.pon  con 


228 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA 


UNBLEACHED  COTTONS. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 
(first  10 
months).i 

Netherlands . 

4,235 

3,806 

3, 876 

2,633 

1,339 

258 

1,915 

58 

4,897 

216 

2, 678 

United  States . 

2 

5 

2 

57 

61 

United  Kingdom . 

4, 216 

4, 304 

5,147 

11 

4, 304 

4,126 

4, 474 

3,780 

12,292 

2,600 

Germany. . 

18 

75 

Italy.  . 

23 

119 

34 

British  India . 

4 

3 

2 

2 

M2 

96 

Japan . 

7 

15 

33 

96 

443 

4,966 

9,473 
3, 305 

22, 736 
816 

15, 015 

Straits  Settlements . 

816 

848 

1,007 

752 

1,286 

1,353 

376 

Hongkong . 

11 

4 

16 

17 

210 

China . 

40 

All  other . 

10 

6 

ii 

8 

12 

4 

38 

16 

Total . 

9, 329 

9,178 

10, 119 

7,807 

7,204 

11, 176 

18, 554 

41, 137 

21, 052 

Total  Java  and  Madoera. . . 
Total  Outer  Possessions. . . . 

6, 772 
2,557 

7,207 

1,971 

7,606 

2,515 

6,112 

1,695 

5,594 

1,610 

9, 538 
1, 638 

16, 011 
2,543 

41, 137 

21, 052 

BLEACHED  COTTONS. 


Netherlands . 

United  States . 

20, 582 

19,440 

14, 338 

12, 859 
47 
12,416 

9,020 

79 

15,577 

1,866 
240 
19, 188 

9,143 

727 

15,268 

37,071 
593 
33, 510 
101 
547 

9, 179 
1,025 
2,123 
145 
667 

28,539 

353 

16,256 

United  Kingdom . 

Germany . 

14, 038 
519 
459 
15 
297 
1, 148 
56 

13,414 

492 

675 

15 

228 

1,270 

43 

11, 689 
13 
529 
12 
121 
1,202 
33 

4 

131 

Italy. .  .*. . 

British  India . 

Japan . 

Straits  Settlements . 

Hongkong . 

China . 

521 
14 
247 
1, 193 
133 
32 
461 

210 

4 

2,572 
2, 196 
189 
106 
85 

109 

7 

6,892 

3,369 

317 

14 

115 

67 

8 

4,069 

4,336 

937 

74 

154 

276 

3,672 

373 

936 

132 

457 

All  other . 

Total . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera. . . 
Total  Outer  Possessions . . . 

195 

152 

37, 309 

35,729 

28, 072 

27,923 

30, 038 

32, 117 

34, 783 

84,961 

50, 996 

32, 628 
4,681 

31, 413 
4, 316 

23, 703 
4,369 

24,367 
3, 556 

25, 014 
5,024 

26, 497 
5, 620 

28,903 
5, 880 

84,961 

50,996 

COTTONS,  DYED,  PRINTED,  OR  WOVEN  IN  COLORS  (SARONGS,  KAINS,  SLENDANG3, 

ETC.).2 


Netherlands . 

2, 875 

2, 638 

1, 715 

431 

2,758 

2 

2,381 

6.179 
11 

3, 145 
35 
18 
71 
168 

7.180 
19 

4,429 

United  States . 

United  Kingdom . 

1,006 

34 

40 

171 

2 

4, 685 

773 

6 

7 

226 

649 

997 

1,463 

Germany. . . 

Italy . . 

5 

244 

5 

5,822 

11 

166 

24 

7,529 

8 

is 

25 
86 
12, 083 

8 

India . 

Japan . 

Straits  Settlements . 

5,036 

2 

7,956 

Hongkong . 

China. .  .7 . 

3 

90 

All  other . 

26 

20 

34 

35 

37 

191 

Total . 

8,906 

8,714 

8,460 

9, 200 

17,393 

16, 863 

14,039 

Total  Java  and  Madoera.. . 

4,424 
4, 482 

4, 674 
4,040 

4, 148 
4,312 

3, 812 
5, 388 

7,748 

9,645 

16, 863 

14,039 

Total  Outer  Possessions _ 

OTHER  COTTONS,  DYED,  PRINTED,  OR  WOVEN  IN  COLORS. 


Netherlands . 

15,277 

12, 609 

5, 125 

5,044 

3,052 

773 

3, 386 

15,763 

8, 483 

United  States . 

(3) 

(3) 

4 

125 

448 

1,163 

1,792 

2,800 

426 

United  Kingdom . 

22, 071 

18,118 

15,701 

22,421 

24, 517 

24,288 

22, 495 

44,508 

413 

26,419 

Germany . 

1,682 

673 

73 

4 

10 

10 

237 

Italy ...". . 

2:233 

91 

2,966 

2,650 

2,554 

396 

294 

3,628 

2,563 

India . 

287 

164 

18 

17 

7 

29 

36 

142 

Japan . 

212 

132 

385 

2, 983 

7,460 

18,995 

10, 555 

26, 980 

10,231 

Straits  Settlements . 

5, 397 

6, 486 

2, 930 

3;  384 

4, 380 

6, 285 

6,850 

2,483 

639 

Hongkong . 

54 

26 

141 

365 

358 

359 

517 

2, 771 

1,730 

China . 

130 

102 

152 

102 

151 

99 

213 

492 

All  other . 

2,294 

4,344 

124 

114 

106 

132 

211 

559 

652 

Total . 

49,637 

42, 745 

27,619 

37,209 

43,043 

52,529 

46,349 

100,539 

51,380 

Total  Java  and  Madoera. . . 
Total  Outer  Possessions... . 

34,483 

15,154 

30,478 

12,267, 

20,454 
7, 165 

29,289 

7,920 

34,235 

8,808 

41,737 

10,792 

34,068 

12,281 

100, 539 

51,380 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

2  Included  in  “Other  cottons,  dyed,  printed,  or  woven  in  colors,”  in  1913  and  1914. 

3  Included  in  “All  other  countries.” 


1000  FLORINS 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES 


229 


TOTAL  VALUE  OF  PIECE  GOODS  IMPORTED. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

• 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921 
(first  10 
months).1 

Unbleached . 

Bleached . 

Dyed,  printed,  and  woven 
in  colors  (sarongs,  etc.)... 
Other  dyed,  printed,  or 
woven  in  colors . 

Total . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . . . 
Total  Outer  Possessions... . 

9,329 

37,309 

(2) 

49,637 

9,178 

35,729 

(2) 

42,745 

10,119 

28,072 

8,906 

27,619 

7, 807 
27,923 

8,714 

37,209 

7,204 

30,038 

8,460 

43,012 

11, 176 
32,117 

9,200 

52,529 

18,554 

34,783 

17,393 

46,349 

41,137 

84,961 

16,863 

100,539 

21,052 

50,996 

14,039 

51,380 

96,275 

87,652 

74,715 

81,653 

88,744 

105,022 

117,079 

243,500 

137,467 

73, 883 
22,392 

69,099 

18,553 

56, 187 
18, 528 

64,442 

17,211 

68,991 
19, 753 

81,584 

23,438 

86,730 

30,349 

243, 500 

137,467 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

2  Included  in  “Other  cottons,  dyed,  printed,  or  woven  in  colors,”  in  1913  and  1914. 


Tihese  imports  consist  of  greys,  including  calicoes,  supers,  shirt¬ 
ings,  drills,  and  ticking;  bleached  goods,  including  cambrics,  shirt- 

IMPORTS  OF  UNBLEACHED  COTTONS 
NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES. 


ings,  lawns,  and  drills;  fancies,  including  shirtings,  prints,  lawns, 
madapollams,  voiles,  and  sateens;  and  jeans,  khaki,  velvets,  ticking, 
and  black  italians. 

UNBLEACHED  COTTON,  INCLUDING  CALICOES,  SUPERS,  DRILLS,  AND  JEANS. 

The  report  on  “  Cotton  Goods  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  ”  (Special 
Agents  Series  No.  120),  written  by  Ralph  M.  Odell  and  published 


230  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  in  1916,  may  still 
be  taken  as  representing  the  cotton  grades  and  sizes  in  all  the  essen¬ 
tial  points,  but  all  references  to  prices  should  be  disregarded.  Some 
changes  are  noted  under  the  various  headings,  but  in  the  main  the 
conditions  reported  by  him  still  prevail. 

Japan’s  cottons  were  better  in  the  lower  grades  than  in  the  finer 
qualities.  It  is  very  probable  that  qualities  will  improve  under 
keen  competition.  In  the  meantime  Japan  has  been  supplying  low 
qualities  at  a  comparatively  cheap  price  and  has  succeeded  in  secur¬ 
ing  a  large  trade  and  a  strong  foothold  for  future  business. 

IMPORTS  OF  BLEACHED  COTTONS. 

NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES. 


Grey  calicoes . — A  trade  has  developed  for  a  larger  quantity  of 
42-inch  calicoes  for  batiking,  although  38  inches  is  still  the  most 
popular  width.  With  the  advancing  prices  batikers,  who  were 
accustomed  to  use  only  cambrics  in  their  work,  have  gradually 
dropped  to  shirtings,  to  supers,  and  finally  to  calicoes ;  and  this 
has  involved  new  widths  and  larger  proportionate  quantities  in  the 
cheaper  qualities. 

Grey  supers. — The  most  important  lengths  and  widths  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  time  are  24  yards  by  31,  38,  and  42  inches,  and  40  yards  by  36 
inches.  In  construction  68  by  76  is  most  in  demand.  The  Japanese 
have  held  a  large  part  of  this  trade  since  1918. 

Grey  drills  and  jeans.— The  principal  staples  in  grey  drills  are 
20/21  inches  by  30  and  40  yards,  and  26  inches  by  40  yards.  There 
is  a  wide  variety  of  both  drills  and  jeans  on  the  market.  The  great 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


231 


number  of  uses  these  heavy  qualities  are  put  to,  from  trousers  to 
sails,  makes  it  difficult  to  gauge  the  demand,  but  since  the  market  is 
frequently  almost  bare,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  disposing  of  stocks 
of  any  widths  up  to  27  and  28  inches. 

BLEACHED  COTTONS. 

Owing  to  the  greater  values  in  bleached  goods,  the  trade  has  fallen 
off  in  favor  of  grey  supers,  as  previously  stated.  Japan  has  not 
taken  the  place  in  this  trade  that  it  has  in  calicoes  and  supers,  but 
shows  a  gradual  development.  The  principal  imports  of  bleached 
goods  are  in  the  lower  grades.  Great  Britain  maintains  its  strong 
position,  having  40  per  cent  of  this  trade  in  1920  and  31  per  cent 
during  the  first  10  months  of  1921.  The  Netherlands  is  approach¬ 
ing  its  pre-war  position  in  the  trade.  The  Dutch  finish  of  bleached 
cottons  is  well  regarded  in  the  trade  of  the  colony  and  is  easily  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  other  finishes. 

White  shirtings  are  in  greatest  demand  in  32  and  36  inch  widths 
by  40  yards,  long  fold,  and  comparatively  small  quantities  of  29-inch 
shirtings  are  imported.  The  constructions  mentioned  in  Mr.  Odell’s 
report  are  still  correct  in  many  of  the  essential  particulars,  but  there 
is  now  some  demand  for  weaves  up  to  96  square,  especially  in  Bata¬ 
via.  No  striping  (heading)  on  the  ends  of  the  piece  is  required. 
Japan  made  a  strong  bid  for  this  trade,  but  the  weave  and  finish 
were  both  inferior,  and  the  tendency  is  for  the  trade  to  return  to  pre¬ 
war  suppliers. 

Cambrics  are  in  the  greatest  demand  in  Semarang  and  Soerabaya, 
although  there  is  a  good  trade  in  Batavia  and  other  markets  as  well. 
The  Japanese  bid  for  this  trade  has  met  with  no  permanent  success, 
as  their  finer  weaves  are  not  up  to  English  qualities. 

SARONGS,  KAINS,  SLENDANGS,  AND  KAPELLAS. 

In  1915  the  imports  under  this  heading  amounted  to  8,906,000 
florins,  or  12  per  cent  of  the  total  imports,  and  in  the  first  10  months 
of  1921  to  14,039,000  florins,  or  10  per  cent  of  the  total.  They  are 
made,  on  the  whole,  of  fairly  good  cloths  and  in  some  instances  are 
splendid  examples  of  fancy  weaving  and  high-class  engraving  and 
printing.  This  field  is  considered  the  realm  of  a  limited  number  of 
Dutch,  British,  and  Swiss  makers,  whose  starting  point  was  the  study 
of  native  weaving  and  batik  patterns,  including  the  Pulicat  (Brit¬ 
ish  Indian)  designs  of  woven  sarongs. 

FANCIES. 

In  1920  the  total  imports  of  pure  cotton  textiles  into  Java  and 
Madoera  amounted  to  42,630  metric  tons,  of  which  14,734  tons  was 
largely  composed  of  cottons  coming  under  the  general  head  of 
fancies. 

The  Java  market  for  printed  cloths  (printed  calicoes)  is  different 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  island.  In  Batavia  the  dealers  cater  to 
the  Soendanese  (mostly  mountain  people),  who  are  somewhat  stronger 
physically  than  the  Javanese  and  of  a  more  buoyant  disposition,  which 
is  reflected  in  the  lighter  colors  of  their  clothing. 

In  Cheribon  and  the  surrounding  districts  there  is  a  decided 
mixture  of  the  Javanese  and  Soendanese  peoples,  and  this  mixture 


232  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

has  developed  in  past  years  distinct  preferences  in  designs  and 
colors. 

A  little  farther  east,  in  the  market  catered  to  by  Semarang,  there 
are  approximately  10,000,000  Javanese  who  want  a  different  type  of 
prints.  In  this  district  there  is  also  a  large  market  for  cloths  dyed 
in  the  piece. 

At  Soerabaya,  in  east  Java,  there  is  still  another  distinct  prefer¬ 
ence  in  designs,  induced  probably  by  the  influence  of  Madoera.  These 
people  are  vigorous,  thrifty  mariners,  hard  workers,  and  quick¬ 
tempered,  and  they  have  undoubtedly  influenced  the  taste  in  design 
of  prints  in  east  Java. 

Still  other  designs  are  demanded  at  Macassar,  in  the  Celebes,  but 

IMPORTS  OF  COTTONS,  DYED,  PRINTER 
WOVEN  IN  COLORS.  N.ES. 

NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES. 

50000 


45000 

40000 


35000 

30000 

*0 

z 

or  25000 

3 

UL 

|  20000 
15000 

10000 

5000 


1913  1914  1915  1916  1917  1918  1919  1920  1921  1922  1923  1924  1925 

Fig.  23. 

these  are  more  particularly  in  serongs,  headpieces,  and  slendangs 
rather  than  in  the  printed  calicoes. 

Khaki  drills . — In  former  times  there  was  a  considerable  trade  in 
khaki  drills,  but  it  has  fallen  to  small  proportions. 

Printed  hamdkerckiefs. — There  is  a  large  native  trade  in  cheap 
printed  handkerchiefs,  but  the  offerings  from  the  United  States  have 
been  of  too  good  a  quality  to  share  in  it.  The  Glasgow  mills  are  the 
principal  suppliers. 

Cotton  blankets  are  an  important  item  in  the  trade,  light  weights 
being  required.  The  competition  among  the  importers  is  keen  and 
takes  the  form  of  cutting  weights  and  sizes  to  a  minimum. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


233 


Towels. — There  is  a  considerable  business  done  in  bleached  crash 
towels  in  all  sizes.  The  European  department  stores  stock  toweling 
and  report  a  large  trade,  but  this  is  principally  with  the  better  class 
of  trade,  which,  while  important,  is  small  as  compared  to  the  native 
trade. 

The  department  stores  also  have  a  good  business  in  small  hand 
towels  and  in  napery  of  fair  to  good  quality. 

American  calicoes. — American  printed  calicoes  are  of  finer  weave 
than  is  called  for  in  the  Java  markets,  and  in  submitting  samples  of 
designs  it  is  necessary  to  clearly  specify  the  weave  quoted,  submitting 
a  sample  if  the  designs  are  not  printed  on  the  weave  quoted.  Ameri¬ 
can  manufacturers  prepared  to  deliver  required  weaves  should  submit 
samples  of  all  designs  to  the  Dutch  importers  in  all  the  markets, 
as  most  of  the  branches  of  the  importing  houses  initiate  orders  inde¬ 
pendently  of  each  other.  A  list  of  these  importers  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  or  its  district 
and  cooperative  offices  by  referring  to  file  FE-19027. 

Samples  of  so-called  “  fancies,”  submitted  by  a  Batavia  importer 
as  typical  of  the  demand,  have  been  placed  on  file  in  the  Textile 
Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  at 
Washington  with  prices  and  dimensions,  as  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


No. 

Items. 

Width. 

Length. 

Price. 

1 

Corassi  prints . 

Inches. 

25/26 

26 

Yards. 

30 

Florins. 

18-12 

2 

Tickings . 

30 

24-15 

3 

Blotch  chintz  lawns . 

24J/25 

25 

30 

18-  9 

4 

Dyed  pongees . .• . 

30 

22-14 

5 

Plain  dyed  crimps . 

26 

30 

32-25 

6 

Dved  lawns _ ? . 

25 

30 

18-  9 

7 

Dyed  schreinered  brocades . 

25 

30 

30-18 

8 

Macanas . 

27 

30 

35-20 

9 

Mercerized  fancies . _ . 

25/26 

25 

30 

35-24 

10 

Dyed  plain  brocades . 

30 

35-22 

11 

Plain  dyed  tussores . . 

27 

30 

75-45 

12 

Dved  voiles . 

25/26 

25 

30 

25-15 

13 

Blotch  chintz  stripes . 

30 

20-13 

14 

Bleached  brocades . 

25 

30 

33-20 

15 

. do . 

25 

30 

35-20 

16 

Schreinered  Disch.  prints . 

25 

30 

27-18 

17 

Padded  ground  brocades . 

25 

30 

26-16 

18 

White  Bedford  cords . 

26/27 

30 

30 

28-20 

19 

Black  italians . 

30 

40-25 

BUSINESS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

Being  one  of  the  most  important  cotton  piece-goods  markets  in  the 
world,  business  organization  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  this  line  is 
highly  developed.  The  retail  and  consuming  trade  has  been  very 
closely  catered  to,  the  effort  being  to  give  them  what  they  want  in 
qualities,  finishes,  markings,  folds,  and  packing.  The  United  States 
has  distinct  advantages  in  this  trade,  since  it  produces  a  large  part 
of  the  raw  materials  which  go  into  the  construction  of  the  piece  goods 
sold,  and  since  it  is  the  principal  ultimate  consumer  of  many  of  the 
products  of  the  colony.  The  differences  between  the  distance  to  the 
Java  ports  from  the  Atlantic  coast  and  from  the  European  markets 
is  offset  to  some  extent  by  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  raw  mate¬ 
rials  have  to  be  transported  from  the  United  States  to  European 


1000  FLORINS 


234  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

manufacturing  cities.  The  principal  disadvantages  are  in  the  abso¬ 
lute  lack  of  an  American  distributing  organization  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  markets  and  their  requirements.  When  American  manufac¬ 
turers  become  sufficiently  interested  in  this  trade  to  study  its  intrica¬ 
cies  and  to  create  an  effective  organization  in  the  field,  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  can  not  secure  a  large  part  of  the  trade. 

The  cotton  piece-goods  importers  are  usually  importers  of  general 
lines  of  staple  commodities,  although  some  of  them  specialize  on  tex¬ 
tile  lines,  and  a  few  deal  in  textiles  exclusively. 

The  Dutch  business  organization  is  much  the  largest.  It  is  com¬ 
posed  of  some  large  and  well-financed  companies,  whose  business  in 

IMPORTS  OF  DYED,  PRINTED,  AND  WOVEN 
COTTONS. 


Fig.  24. 

cottons  alone  amounts  to  several  million  florins  a  month  and  which 
operate  over  a  wide  field,  as  well  as  other  well-established  concerns 
doing  business  in  narrower  fields  and  small  firms  working  on  special 
lines.  All  sorts  of  moral  credits  are  represented.  The  Dutch  im¬ 
porters  do  the  larger  part  of  the  business.  Young  Dutchmen,  before 
going  to  the  colony  to  take  up  employment  as  assistants  in  the  textile 
departments  of  the  importing  houses,  are  sent  to  Manchester  to  serve 
for  a  time  in  their  buying  offices  and  to  learn  the  technicalities  of  the 
manufacture. 

The  British  organization  is  composed  principally  of  two  importing 
houses  working  apparently  in  close  contact  with  the  mills  and  are 
often  in  a  position  to  make  quick  deliveries  at  very  narrow  margins  of 
profit  when  the  regular  dealers  are  holding  for  their  normal  profits. 

The  German  organization  has  been  held  together  during  the  war 
and  post-war  periods  and  is  doing  some  business  in  hardware  and 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


235 


kindred  lines,  but  has  not  yet  resumed  its  former  important  position 
in  the  piece-goods  trade.  Some  of  these  firms  have  registered  under 
the  Dutch  company  laws  and  are  now  known  as  Dutch  companies, 
but  most  of  them  are  partnerships.  Their  influence  is  strongest  in 
Batavia,  Padang,  Medan,  and  Macassar. 

The  Italian  organization  consists  of  one  important  company,  which 
is  a  subsidiary  of  a  Milan  house,  operating  throughout  the  Orient. 

The  J apanese  organization  is  composed  of  several  importing  houses 
and,  unlike  the  others,  has  behind  it  the  skeleton  of  a  retail  organiza¬ 
tion  in  the  larger  cities  and  in  many  of  the  small  towns. 

T he  retail  organization  catering  to  the  Chinese  and  native  trade  is 
made  up  of  Chinese,  with  the  few  Japanese  already  mentioned,  and 
the  Arab  traders.  In  every  “  passar  ”  (shopping  district)  there  is 
an  Arab  section,  where  the  shops  are  small  and  the  stocks  consist 
of  sarongs,  slendangs,  kains,  and  kapellas,  generally  of  medium  or 
cheap  qualities. 

The  Chinese  buyers  are  keen  judges  of  the  market  and  their  judg¬ 
ments  are  usually  uniform  throughout  the  colony,  with  the  result 
that  their  decision  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  a  rise  or  fall  in  the  market 
takes  the  form  of  a  general  movement.  It  is  very  seldom  that  this 
“mass  judgment”  is  wrong. 

For  the  better  class  of  trade  (European,  half-caste,  and  Chinese) 
there  are  some  large  European-owned  shops  in  all  the  cities,  carry¬ 
ing  rather  full  lines  of  textiles  of  qualities  and  designs  suited  to  the 
tastes  of  their  trade,  but  in  all  the  staples  they  are  in  competition 
with  the  Chinese  dealers. 

KINDS  OF  CLOTHING  WORN  BY  NATIVES. 

On  the  island  of  Java  there  are  three  main  tribal  groups,  and  the 
variation  in  the  culture  of  the  people  leads  to  variations  in  the  design 
of  their  clothing. 

The  Javanese  men  and  women  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes 
wear  the  kain  as  the  principal  garment  for  the  lower  body,  while 
the  Soendanese  of  western  Java  and  the  Malays,  who  are  found  along 
the  coasts  of  all  the  islands,  wear  the  sarong.  The  Madoerese  men 
of  eastern  Java  and  Madoera  wear  short  trousers.  The  Soendanese 
and  Javanese  men  wear  a  headcloth  called  “  kapella,”  and  every 
woman  carries  a  slendang,  or  long  strip  of  cloth  for  carrying  bur¬ 
dens.  These  four  articles  of  clothing  constitute  an  important  part 
of  the  cotton-goods  trade.  The  women  wear  a  tight-fitting  upper 
garment,  and  the  better  classes  also  wear  a  cotton  overgarment,  or 
coat.  For  everyday  wear,  while  at  work,  the  common  classes  in  cen¬ 
tral  Java  wear  cloth  of  solid  colors. 

The  natives  have  been  trained  to  buy  by  mark,  and  the  mark  or 
u  chop  ”  means  quite  as  much  in  this  colony  as  it  does  in  other  parts 
of  the  Orient.  In  cotton  piece  goods  this  “  chop  ”  is  not  only  the 
printed  marking  and  labels  on  the  ends  of  the  pieces,  but  includes 
interwoven  threads  of  red,  gold,  blue,  and  other  colors  in  the  form  of 
stripes  on  the  end  of  each  piece.  It  also  includes  the  method  of  fold¬ 
ing  and  wrapping  and  the  quality  and  color  of  string  for  tying,  all 
of  the  minor  details  of  manufacture  and  packing.  This  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  consumers  is  also  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  Chi¬ 
nese  retailers  in  all  parts  of  the  Far  East,  and  it  is  impossible  when 


236 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


trade  is  flowing  normally  to  induce  the  European  importers  to  buy 
any  staple  piece  goods  that  do  not  conform  in  every  respect  to  the 
demands  of  the  trade  in  these  minor  details. 

MARKET  REVIEW. 

During  a  large  part  of  the  war  period  importers  in  the  colonies 
sold  from  local  stocks  at  less  than  replacement  prices,  relying  for 
their  profit  on  the  advance  which  generally  took  place  between  the 
time  of  placing  orders  and  the  time  of  their  arrival  in  the  colonies, 
usually  about  eight  months.  This  was  a  period  of  advancing  values, 
and  the  armistice  saw  Manchester  prices  at  a  very  high  point  with 
large  orders  booked  ahead.  The  slump  in  prices,  which  began  in 
March,  1919,  found  the  importers  with  large  stocks  and  heavy  for¬ 
ward  commitments.  Partly  as  a  result  of  this  slump  and  largely 
due  to  the  necessity  of  securing  ready  money  to  meet  drafts  for 
stocks  of  all  sorts  coming  forward  from  America  and  Europe,  the 
importers  dumped  their  holdings  of  cottons  on  the  market  at  prices 
below  cost  and  the  local  Chinese  retailers  stocked  heavily. 

The  most  important  annual  event  in  the  piece-goods  market  of 
Java  is  the  Poessa,  or  Mohammedan  New  Year,  which  in  1919 
occurred  in  May  and  June.  For  40  days  each  year  the  natives 
celebrate  this  season  with  feasts  and  comparative  idleness  and  end 
it  with  a  great  celebration.  A  large  percentage  of  the  year’s  cotton 
sales  are  made  at  this  time.  The  reestablishment  of  the  Dutch 
steamship  routes  to  Europe,  and  of  shipping  routes  in  general, 
early  in  1919,  provided  an  easy  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  colonies 
and  brought  about  an  early  reaction.  There  ensued  a  period  of 
prosperity  for  native  producers  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the 
colony.  Sales  of  all  sorts  of  manufactures  for  native  use,  including 
cottons,  were  very  large.  The  Poessa  celebration  cleaned  up  most 
of  the  staple  cotton  lines,  and  the  sorting-up  trade  which  followed 
these  sales  found  the  importers  without  supplies  for  the  retailers. 
As  a  consequence  the  Chinese  retailers  were  plunged  into  a  panic  of 
fear  lest  they  be  not  able  to  supply  their  trade.  The  recovery  of  the 
cotton  market  was  rapid.  With  the  retailers  price  was  secondary  to 
early  delivery,  and  as  they  increased  their  prices  in  proportion  to 
the  ability  of  the  natives  to  pay  they  were  working  on  a  handsome 
margin. 

The  period  from  July,  1919,  to  July,  1920,  was  one  of  high  prices, 
ready  sale  for  produce,  and  increasing  wages  for  native  labor,  with 
a  consequent  increase  in  purchases  of  cotton  piece  goods  and  other 
articles  of  native  consumption.  The  importers  generally  expect  to 
have  stock  on  hand  for  about  four  months’  requirements  and  antici¬ 
pate  their  needs  for  six  or  eight  months  further.  The  increased 
monthly  consumption  of  cotton  by  the  natives  seemed  to  warrant 
increasing  their  forward  commitments  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
prices  were  mounting  rapidly. 

Purchases  continued  on  this  basis  until  May,  1920,  when  as  a 
result  of  the  financial  panic  in  Japan,  and  for  other  reasons,  some 
of  the  larger  importers  ceased  buying.  Manchester  manufacturers, 
it  is  claimed,  urged  the  importers  to  buy  forward  up  to  the  last  of 
May,  and  on  their  advice  the  Manchester  representatives  of  some 
of  the  importers  continued  to  buy  until  the  conviction  of  their  error 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


237 


was  forced  upon  them  by  the  decided  drop  in  prices  and  the  gen¬ 
eral  stoppage  of  buying  throughout  the  Orient. 

Japanese  mills  had  established  themselves  in  the  trade,  and  while 
their  weaves  were  inferior  to  those  of  Manchester,  they  sold  at  prices 
that  claimed  a  large  share  of  the  trade.  In  July  prices  began  to  drop 
sharply.  Japan  flooded  the  eastern  markets  with  stocks  that  com¬ 
pelled  sales  and  further  demoralized  the  local  markets.  Chinese 
retailers  lost  all  confidence  in  current  prices  and  refused  to  buy  except 
for  immediate  needs,  thus  throwing  the  whole  burden  of  the  heavy 
stocks  on  the  importers. 

In  September,  1920,  it  became  apparent  to  the  banks  that  the  im¬ 
porters  would  require  extraordinary  accommodations.  On  October 
28  a  joint  meeting  of  the  financial  institutions  of  the  colony  was  held 
at  Batavia,  and  it  was  decided  to  protect  the  holders  of  import  stocks 
so  that  they  might  be  able  to  work  their  goods  off  at  prices  which 
would  cause  them  a  minimum  loss.  Sugar  dropped  from  74  florins 
per  picul  (1  picul=133J  pounds)  in  May  to  29  florins  at  the  end  of 
September,  and  prices  of  other  produce  slumped  sharply,  with  small 
demand  at  any  price. 

Manchester  mills  found,  with  the  cessation  of  demand  and  cancella¬ 
tion  of  orders,  that  they  could  supply  the  Netherlands  Indies  im¬ 
porters  at  much  earlier  dates  than  they  had  anticipated,  and  although 
the  market  was  heavily  overstocked  shipments  arrived  several  months 
before  they  were  expected.  The  importers’  difficulties  were  further 
complicated  by  their  heavy  stocks  of  staples  and  forward  commit¬ 
ments  in  other  lines  of  merchandise. 

During  the  period  from  July,  1920,  to  June,  1921,  the  importers  of 
the  Netherlands  Indies  were  endeavoring  to  work  off  accumulated 
stocks  at  prices  which  would  involve  the  minimum  of  loss,  while  the 
banks  firmly  supported  them.  In  the  latter  part  of  May,  1921,  Chi¬ 
nese  piece-goods  retailers  apparently  decided  that  prices  had  reached 
the  lowest  point  and  they  began  to  buy  freely,  relieving  the  importers 
of  their  stocks  at  current  prices.  According  to  the  leading  bankers  of 
Batavia,  orders  began  to  be  placed  with  Manchester  houses  about 
the  beginning  of  July.  It  seemed  apparent  to  them  that  the  lowest 
period  in  this  crisis  had  been  reached  and  that  the  future  promised  a 
resumption  of  trade  in  cotton  piece  goods,  but  on  a  considerably 
lower  level  than  at  any  time  since  1917-18.  They  said  that  while 
there  was  still  much  stock  to  be  disposed  of,  the  general  importers 
could  estimate  their  losses  fairly  accurately  and  there  was  a  prospect 
for  a  regular  turnover  of  cotton  piece  goods  in  the  future  at  fairly 
profitable  prices. 

During  the  war  and  post-war  periods  importers  increased  their 
capitalization  considerably,  and  their  losses  in  1920-21  in  many  cases 
wiped  out  their  reserves  and  in  some  cases  their  entire  capital,  but  as 
their  organization  and  connections  were  valuable  and  necessary  to 
the  trade  of  the  colony  it  was  not  expected  that  any  of  the  important 
organizations  would  be  forced  into  liquidation.  The  banks  expressed 
the  hope  that  the  revival  of  business  would  be  gradual  and  seemed 
to  be  inclined  to  use  what  pressure  they  could  to  restrict  undue  specu¬ 
lation  in  all  lines. 

In  June,  1921,  after  a  long  period  of  stagnation  in  the  market  for 
most  lines  of  produce,  European  and  American  markets  opened  up 
in  a  small  way  at  prices  that  were  satisfactory.  With  the  exception 


238  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

of  rubber,  tea,  vegetable  oils,  and  a  few  minor  products,  prices  were 
sufficiently  high  to  leave  a  fair  margin  of  profit  to  the  producers. 

COTTON- YARN  TRADE. 

Cotton-yarn  importers  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  say  that 
Ealph  M.  Odell’s  report,  written  in  1916,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made,  is  a  good  statement  of  the  situation  as  it  stands 
to-day,  excepting  as  to  the  courses  of  imports.  In  his  report  Mr. 
Odell  says: 

The  cotton-yarn  trade  is  not  considered  very  important,  as  it  comprises  a 
wide  variety  of  qualities  and  colors,  the  demand  for  any  one  of  which  is  not 
very  large.  The  liand-loom  weaving  industry,  for  which  the  yarn  is  used,  is 
not  in  any  sense  organized,  nor  are  the  fabrics  (mainly  fancy-colored  checks 
and  stripes  for  sarongs)  produced  by  this  method  of  appreciable  commercial 
importance.  The  industry  is  carried  on  in  the  homes  of  the  natives  in  all  the. 
islands  to  some  extent,  but  particularly  in  the  Celebes,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and 
Java  (in  the  districts  around  Cheribon  and  Semarang).  The  grey  yam  is 
principally  24s,  30s,  and  40s  (mostly  single),  but  some  30/2  and  40/2  is  im¬ 
ported.  The  24s  and  a  part  of  the  30s  come  from  India,  but  England  supplies 
most  of  the  30s  and  all  of  the  40s.  The  yarn  is  usually  put  up  in  5  and  10 
pound  bundles,  400  pounds  to  the  bale.  Only  a  small  quantity  of  bleached 
yarn  is  purchased,  and  it  is  40/1  and  40/2,  from  England.  Colored  yarn 
(mostly  30/1)  is  probably  the  most  important  item  in  the  trade.  Formerly 
it  came  from  Switzerland  and  Austria,  but  Bombay,  Italy,  England,  Germany, 
and  the  Netherlands  are  now  the  principal  sources  of  supply.  All  colors  are 
in  demand,  but  red  (light  and  dark)  occupies  first  place.  Other  colors  are 
light  and  dark  green  and  light  and  dark  yellow. 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  (in  metric  tons)  of  yarn 
imported  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  since  1915 : 


Gountries. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 
(first  10 
months).1 

Netherlands . 

449 

416 

190 

12 

87 

84 

3 

238 

3 

12 

1,066 

47 

110 

1 

139 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

1, 148 
46 
33 
978 
104 

344 

335 

130 

182 

344 

Italy . 

Other  European . 

Singapore,  benang,  Hongkong,  and  China. . 
British  India . 

1, 352 
163 

2 

1, 456 
50 

2 

1, 147 
13 
30 

1, 475 
51 
37 

505 

165 

65 

26 

Japan . 

All  other . 

2 

Total . 

2,760 

2,277 

2,033 

1,332 

1,832 

1,564 

1,244 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

1,658 

1,102 

1,499 

778 

1, 524 
509 

996 

336 

1,111 

721 

1, 564 

1,244 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  imports  of  Semarang  and  Cheribon  are  for  the  trade  of  the 
district  surrounding  those  two  ports,  and  those  of  Batavia  largely 
went  to  the  same  district,  although  this  port  also  supplies  the  demand 
from  Benkoelen,  in  western  Sumatra,  as  well  as  the  Lampongs  and 
to  some  extent  Palembang,  in  southern  Sumatra. 

Soerabaya’s  small  imports  in  all  probability  went  to  the  near-by 
districts  in  the  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok,  where  some  weaving  is 
done,  and  possibly  some  were  used  in  the  Celebes  and  southern 
Borneo. 

COTTON  TRADE  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  cotton  trade  of  British  Malaya  is.  done  by  a  few  large  import¬ 
ing  houses  in  Singapore  and  Penang,  nominally  on  indent  for  the 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


239 


Chinese  retailers  who  sell  to  the  oriental  and  native  trade.  Early 
in  1921,  when  overstocks,  due  to  the  outcome  of  the  slump  in  prices, 
were  the  heaviest,  the  best  authorities  estimated  that  85  per  cent  of 
the  total  was  held  by  less  than  10  European  importers. 

While  considerable  quantities  of  Japanese  cottons  were  imported 
during  the  later  war  years,  they  did  not  become  so  firmly  established 
in  the  markets  of  the  peninsula  as  in  Java.  Manchester  manufac¬ 
turers  are  well  represented  in  the  Straits  cities  and  guard  the  market 
closely. 

A  monograph  on  cotton  goods  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  by  Ralph 
M.  Odell,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com¬ 
merce  in  1916  as  Special  Agents  Series  No.  115,  is  still  correct  in  the 
essential  details. 

A  quarterly  statement  of  stocks  in  Singapore  and  Penang  is  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  chambers  of  commerce.  The  figures  are  compiled  from 
answers  to  a  questionnaire  sent  to  chamber  members,  but  they  do 
not  represent  the  entire  stocks  on  hand. 

IRON  AND  STEEL. 

PRINCIPAL  FACTORS  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  TRADE. 

The  United  States  Steel  Products  Co.  maintains  an  office  at  Soera- 
baya  and  has  been  a  large  factor  in  the  trade. 

Hugo  Stinnes,  the  German  financier,  has  organized  a  branch  of 
his  main  German  company  at  The  Hague,  with  a  head  colonial 
agency  at  Bandoeng,  Java,  under  the  name  of  the  Rhine-Elbe  Union. 
This  “union”  is  erecting  a  plant  at  Cheribon,  Java,  where  railway 
cars  and  equipment  are  to  be  constructed  for  the  State  railways. 
This  company  has  received  some  very  large  contracts  from  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  and  is  a  big  factor  in  the  iron  and  steel  trade. 

Wm.  H.  Muller  &  Co.,  a  Dutch  concern  with  large  iron  and  steel 
interests  in  Europe,  organized  a  company  in  the  United  States 
under  the  name  of  the  Iron  &  Ore  Corporation,  with  a  branch  in 
Soerabaya,  through  which  it  does  business  between  the  colony  and 
the  United  States. 

N.  Y.  Maatschappij  t.  v.  d.  z.  Linde  &  Teves  and  Stokvis  en 
Zonen  (Ltd.)  carry  large  stocks  of  heavy  iron  and  steel  at  Batavia, 
Semarang,  Soerabaya,  and  Medan,  while  smaller  stocks  are  carried  at 
the  minor  points.  They  are  also  very  important  distributers.  This 
company  caters  to  the  plantation  and  mill  trade  of  the  whole  colony 
from  Medan  to  Macassar. 

The  Soerabayasche  Machine  v/h  Becker  &  Co.  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  iron  and  steel  trade,  carrying  a  general  assortment  of 
sizes  and  grades.  It  is  more  important  in  the  east  Java  field  and  in 
the  Preanger  Regencies  (mountain  district  of  west  Java). 

The  following  companies  are  the  more  important  distributers  of 
staples  in  iron  and  steel,  some  of  them  carrying  very  heavy  stocks  at 
many  of  the  commercial  centers : 

Internationale  Crediet  en  Handelsvereeniging  “Rotterdam.’* 

Geo.  Wehry  &  Co. 

S.  L.  van  Nierup  &  Co.’s  Handelmaatschappij. 

Schnitzler  &  Co. 

L.  E.  Tels  &  Co.’s  Handel  maayschappij. 

Handelsvereeniging  v/h  Reiss  &  Co. 

Jacobson  van  den  Berg  &  Co. 


240 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Carl  Schlieper,  a  German,  was,  before  the  war,  one  of  the  most 
important'  dealers  in  iron  and  steel  products  and  has  been  very  active 
in  the  trade  during  the  past  year. 

In  addition  to  the  companies  already  given,  there  are  several 
which  cater  particularly  to  the  sugar  estates,  specializing  in  rails 
and  railway  equipment.  These  concerns,  besides  stocking  materials, 
contract  for  installing  equipment  on  the  plantations  ready  for  opera¬ 
tion.  Three  of  the  most  important  of  these  are  as  follows : 

II.  E.  Oving  Jr.’s  Nederlandsch  Indische  Ijzer  en  Staalhandel 
before  the  war  was  the  agent  in  this  colony  for  Krupps. 

Du  Croo  &  Brauns  have  workshops  in  Soerabaya  and  are  in  a  po¬ 
sition  to  install  on  the  plantations  completely  equipped  railroads. 
Their  head  office  is  in  Amsterdam,  and  before  the  war  most  of  their 
purchases  were  made  there. 

Orenstein  &  Koppel- Arthur  Koppel  Mij.  is  a  German  concern,  and 
until  April  28,  1919,  was  on  the  enemy  trading  list.  This  company 
was  an  important  factor  in  the  light  railroad  business  in  .the  colony 
before  the  war  and  has  a  large  staff  of  engineers  thoroughly  equipped 
for  supplying  railroads  laid  down  and  equipped  ready  for  operation. 

CONSTRUCTION  COMPANIES. 

Outside  of  the  State  railways,  the  Netherlands  Indies  Railways, 
Deli  Railway  Co.,  and  the  various  tramway  companies,  the  sugar 
industry  consumes  the  largest  quantities  of  iron  and  steel.  Several 
machine  shops  are  equipped  to  construct  plantation  buildings  and 
bridges  of  any  necessary  dimensions.  They  are  given  below  in  the 
order  of  their  size. 

Soerabaya,  east  Java:  Macbinefabriek  Kaleraas-Amsterdam ;  Nederlandsch- 
Indiscbe  “  Industrie  ”  ;  Machinefabriek  “  Bratt  ”  ;  Machinefabriek  “  Dapoeari  ” 
v/h  Younge  &  Gill ;  Fabriek  de  Volharding. 

Pasoeroean,  east  Java :  Mij.  t.  e.  v.  h.  Constructiewinkel  “  Bromo.” 

Soerakarta,  central  Java:  Fabriek  de  Volharding. 

Djokjakarta,  central  Java:  Machinefabriek  “Bratt”;  Constructie  atelier 
der  Vorstenlanden. 

In  the  tea  districts  of  west  J ava  the  following  companies  construct 
bridges  and  buildings  on  order: 

Bandoeng,  Preanger,  west  Java :  Technisch  Bureau  Soenda ;  Soerabayasche 
Machinehandel  v/h  Becker  &  Co. 

Batavia  and  Bandoeng,  west  Java :  Linde  and  Tevis  en  R.  S.  Stokvis  en 
Zonen  (Ltd.)  (Lindetevis-Stokvis). 

Batavia,  west  Java :  Machinefabriek  en  Constructie  atelier  “  Molenvliet.” 

Buitenzorg,  west  Java:  West  Java  Engineering  Co.  (Ltd.). 

In  the  oil  district  of  Palembang,  Sumatra,  the  Industrielle  Maat- 
schappij  “  Palembang  ”  has  one  large  shop  at  Palembang  and  another 
at  Moera  Enim,  where  steel  buildings  and  bridges  are  fabricated. 

In  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  district  there  is  a  large  number  of  es¬ 
tates,  but  most  of  the  estate  buildings  are  made  with  hardwood 
frames.  The  Machinefabriek  “  Bratt  ”  at  Medan  does  most  of  the 
fabricating  for  the  district. 

The  Hollandsche  Maatschappij  t’.  h.  m.  r.  weken  in  gewapend  beton 
(Holland-Beton  Mij.)  is  the  most  important  company  contracting 
for  reinforced  concrete  buildings  and  harbor  works.  The  head  office 
of  this  company  in  the  colony  is  at  Weltevreden  (Batavia),  in  west 
Java. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


241 


Various  Government  departments  use  large  quantities  of  all  kinds 
of  iron  and  steel.  The  largest  single  consuming  unit,  aside  from 
the  railways,  is  probably  the  marine  establishment  at  Soerabaya. 

The  work  on  the  new  harbor  at  Belawan  Deli  (Medan,  Sumatra) 
is  being  done  by  the  Aanneming  Maatschappij  Grotius,  of  Batavia. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  MARKET. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  signing  of  the  armistice  dealers  in  iron  and 
steel  products  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  had  the  greatest  diffi¬ 
culty  in  meeting  the  requirements  of  their  trade,  and  the  large  de¬ 
mands  for  construction  seemed  to  warrant  them  in  placing  big  orders 
with  the  mills  in  America,  most  of  which  were  covered  by  confirmed 
bankers’  credits.  When  the  drop  in  price  came,  early  in  1919,  it 
found  the  Dutch  buyers  with  heavy  contracts  on  hand  made  at  pre¬ 
war  prices,  c.  i.  f.  Java  ports,  and  heavy  losses  faced  the  importers. 
Fortunately,  most  of  the  losses  were  borne  by  dealers  who  had  made 
large  profits  out  of  earlier  speculations,  so  that  the  credit  of  the  busi¬ 
ness  community  has  suffered  little  by  the  losses  in  all  lines  of  mer¬ 
chandise  speculation. 

In  the  early  months  of  that  year  stocks  began  to  pile  up  in  the 
Java  ports,  and  long  before  their  arrival  prices  had  dropped  below 
the  corresponding  prices  ex  mill  in  America.  In  April  several 
ships  containing  large  quantities  of  iron  and  steel  products  arrived 
from  the  Netherlands  and  further  glutted  an  already  overstocked 
market.  Had  these  stocks,  however,  been  the  only  ones  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  the  market  would  have  righted  itself  quickly,  but 
this  colony  had  to  take  its  place  in  relieving  the  congestions  in  the 
China  coast  cities  and  in  the  hands  of  jobbers  in  America,  and  offers 
came  in  from  all  directions  at  prices  that  seemed  to  justify  the  idea 
entertained  by  the  Chinese  that,  as  the  war  had  caused  the  inflation 
of  prices,  peace  would  force  them  back  to  pre-war  levels. 

The  shortage  of  materials  in  1917  and  1918  had  left  a  great  need 
for  iron  and  steel  supplies,  and  by  July  shortages  began  to  appear 
in  some  sizes  and  qualities  and  buying  recommenced.  By  the  end 
of  1919  there  were  again  shortages  in  many  sizes  of  staple  materials. 
In  December  American  mills  refused  to  accept  orders  for  definite 
delivery,  and  stock  could  not  be  secured  in  Europe.  A  period  of 
heavy  buying  continued  until  the  middle  of  1920,  and  the  arrival 
of  these  orders  synchronated  with  the  slump  in  the  produce  market 
and  the  general  slump  in  prices  of  import  commodities.  From  July, 
1920,  to  June,  1921,  the  markets  in  all  lines  were  gravely  depressed, 
but  during  most  of  this  time  iron  and  steel  ordered  prior  to  the  de¬ 
pression  continued  to  arrive,  adding  to  the  overstocks.  Arrivals 
began  to  slacken  in  May,  1921,  but  up  to  September  no  signs  of  short¬ 
ages  in  any  qualities  or  sizes  were  apparent. 

IMPORTS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

The  appended  figures  give  the  imports  of  iron  and  steel  products 
into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  for  the  years  1913  (the  last  full 
pre-war  year),  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920,  figures  for  1920  including 
Java  and  Madoera  only.  Imports  for  private  and  Government  ac¬ 
count  for  Java  and  Madoera  and  the  Outer  Possessions  are  shown 
separately. 


242 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


Articles. 

1913 

1917 

1913 

1919 

1920 

Rails,  fishplates,  and  plates  for  cars: 

For  private  account— 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3, 849, 198 
515, 646 

678,  468 
438, 872 

871, 825 

7, 012, 066 

12,  833, 678 

Outer  Possessions . 

21i;  666 

'  992;  631 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1,962, 017 
217,350 

742, 441 
37,062 

3,517,633 
35, 305 

12, 720, 003 
89, 193 

6,343,383 

Outer  Possessions . 

Bridges  and  parts: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

310, 220 
219, 539 

606,941 

25, 118 

281, 766 

627, 236 

Outer  Possessions . 

219;  767 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

209, 233 

56, 736 
47, 626 

1, 009, 130 
79,097 

490, 602 

Outer  Possessions . 

113;  468 

Tubing  and  piping: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2, 007,  868 

1,779, 753 
2, 530, 237 

2, 195, 540 

5, 802, 117 
9, 132, 434 

10,349,687 

Outer  Possessions . 

2, 447;  599 

i;  869;  585 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

68, 450 
9,185 

31, 163 

182, 164 
355, 541 

464,  878 

541, 435 

Outer  Possessions . 

22, 386 

52, 602 

Roofing  and  gutters,  not  galvanized: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

151, 752 
128, 996 

37, 539 

Outer  Possessions . 

33, 256 

For  Government  account — 

J  ava  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Galvanized  roofing: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2, 946, 493 
1, 946, 899 

1, 770, 650 
730, 887 

1, 547, 101 
220, 326 

836, 176 

8, 056, 366 

Outer  Possessions . 

553, 273 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

10, 234 

109, 495 

306, 269 
8,903 

279,  292 

103, 012 

Outer  Possessions . 

2, 227 

892 

21,  712 

Galvanized  ceiling: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

178, 080 
11,695 

148,  2.56 

92,254 

5,101 

293,679 
78, 567 

528, 008 

Outer  Possessions . 

3, 854 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

126, 437 

Outer  Possessions . 

Galvanized  gutters: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

15,  407 

2,  449 

9,605 
15, 080 

18, 4S2 
2, 278 

33,019 

Outer  Possessions . 

'930 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Iron-steel  wire: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

180, 004 

422, 143 

721,  869 
423,  512 

1,094,115 

710,614 

1, 551, 713 

Outer  Possessions . 

13i;  782 

164, 069 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

121, 154 

416, 940 

244. 486 

1, 127, 654 
35, 773 

376,  855 

Outer  Possessions . 

34,678 

7,476 

Electric  cables: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

11,717 
27, 159 

74,654 

805, 578 
277, 565 

498,784 

Outer  Possessions . 

218;  094 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

525, 933 
10,  500 

489, 538 
19, 518 

2, 133, 193 
17, 413 

651,405 

Outer  Possessions . 

Hoop  iron: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

275, 055 
48,757 

696, 002 

1, 040,  297 

547,272 

Outer  Possessions . 

123;  519 

'  139',  298 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

18, 577 

Outer  Possessions . 

Bars,  etc.: 

For  private  account— 

J  ava  and  Madoera . 

4, 150, 480 
717, 879 

9, 637, 962 
2, 491, 237 

10, 545, 938 
2,  420, 543 

10,  946, 558 
3, 163, 199 

26, 492, 708 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

245, 148 
7,627 

328, 762 
43,022 

1, 039, 656 
46, 362 

5, 451, 912 
76,502 

1, 128, 021 

Outer  Possessions . 

Sheets: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

136, 074 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3, 608 

Outer  Possessions . . . 

IMPORT  COMMODITIES 


243 


Articles. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Ordinary  axles: 

For  private  account- 

java  and  Madoera . 

Florins. 
115,315 
14, 423 

Florins. 

7,169 

Florins. 
14, 772 

Florins. 

19,290 

Florins. 

82,723 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

J  ava  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Patent  axles: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

23, 703 
6,564 

2,610 

13,344 

7,428 

3,746 

6,082 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Iron  casseroles: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

128,632 

95,765 

40,975 

20,137 

8,415 

10,564 

39,271 
21, 5z» 

504,654 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

European  cooking  utensils: 

For  private  account —  — 

j  ava  and  Madoera . 

227, 135 
78, 074 

41,549 
30, 313 

21,683 

8,306 

86,539 

30,416 

138,756 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Pig  iron: 

For  private  account — 

J  ava  and  Madoera . 

39, 994 

155,572 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Wire  nails  in  kegs: 

For  private  account — 

J  ava  and  Madoera . 

784, 791 
550, 718 

1,634,319 
930, 479 

3, 242,  516 
920, 165 

2, 339, 098 
922, 596 

4,342,023 

Outer  Possessions  . 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

4,003 

Outer  Possessions . 

25, 045 

8, 848 
8,639 

Wire  nails  in  other  packages: 

For  private  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3,404 
6, 663 

275,869 

Outer  Possessions . 

37, 453 

87, 123 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

31, 248 

Outer  Possessions . 

Spikes: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

69, 815 
163, 103 

46,305 
350, 655 

158, 833 
197,421 

232, 038 
279,967 

912, 340 

578,643 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

46,006 

Outer  Possessions . 

Steel  and  iron  not  otherwise  mentioned: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

4, 512, 428 

1, 805, 123 

1,238,393 
760, 469 

428, 077 
214, 541 

2, 462,913 
1,471,344 

306,487 

16,951 

3,272,117 

777,972 

369, 716 
77,331 

2,607,336 
1,392, 408 

235, 236 
18,475 

4, 751, 237 

1, 959, 701 

1, 274, 252 
232, 738 

6,780, 870 
2, 586, 821 

793,411 
45, 218 

7,925,173 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

2, 406, 521 

Outer  Possessions . 

Iron  and  steel  work  not  otherwise  men¬ 
tioned: 

For  private  account — 

Java  and  Madoera . 

4,292,064 
2, 442, 940 

3, 145, 541 
515, 242 

17,017,158 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account— 

Java  and  Madoera . 

692,917 

Outer  Possessions . 

Total . 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

42,035,071 

34, 344, 450 

41, 896, 860 

90, 479, 544 

105,379,109 

24,089,459 
11, 315, 128 

5,765,385 

865,099 

20, 847,621 
10,123, 131 

2,946,040 

427,658 

26, 108, 982 
8,834,269 

6,384,698 
'  568, 911 

42,395,453 

21,116,296 

26,292,502 

675,293 

12,833,985 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

92, 545, 124 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

19878°— 23 - 17 


244  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Reducing  the  imports  to  United  States  dollars  at  mint  par  ($0,402), 
the  total  imports  were  as  follows:  1913,  $16,898,098;  1917,  $13,806,- 
468;  1918,  $16,842,537;  1919,  $36,372,776;  and  1920  (Java  and 
Madoera  only),  $42,362,401. 

The  shortage  of  shipping  during  the  later  war  years  forced  a 
rigid  economy  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel,  and  the  large  increase  of 
imports  in  1919  was  justified  by  the  demand  for  building  and  re¬ 
pairs  to  buildings  and  materials.  This  demand  continued  until  the 
late  spring  of  1920,  and  there  were  heavy  forward  orders  placed  at 
that  time  which  arrived  after  the  price  slump  that  occurred  in  June 
and  later.  Large  quantities  of  these  steel  products  were  on  hand  in 
September,  1921. 

Valuation. — The  following  units  of  values  were  used  during  the 
years  under  review,  and  quantities  can  be  learned  by  dividing  the 
total  imports  by  the  valuation  unit : 


Articles. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Rails,  fishplates,  etc . 

_ per  kilo. . 

0.50 

0.51} 

0. 43 

Bridges  and  parts 

_ *  .  .do _ 

.44 

Tubing  and  piping  . 

. do _ 

0. 33 

.36 

.67 

.59 

Roofing  and  gutters,  not.  galvanized..  . 

. do _ 

0. 82 

Galvanized  roofing _ _ _ 7. . 

. do _ 

.17 

.55 

.68 

.46 

.55 

Galvanized  ceiling . 

.30 

.58 

.80 

1.14 

0) 

Galvanized  gutters . 

.20 

1. 00 

1.00 

1.00 

0) 

Iron  wire . 

. do _ 

.30 

.54 

1.16 

0) 

Electric  cables . 

. do _ 

1.05 

1.70 

1.70 

1. 10 

Hoop  iron . 

. do _ 

.38 

.55 

.55 

.48 

Bars,  sheets,  and  plates . 

. do _ 

.50 

.52 

.41 

.40 

Ordinary  axles . .  t . 

8.80 

13. 50 

12.00 

7. 87 

7. 87 

Patent  axles . 

. do _ 

14.  75 

22. 50 

12. 83 

12.83 

Iron  casseroles . 

.60 

.63 

.93 

.90} 

1.17 

European  cooking  utensils . 

. do _ 

.14 

.18 

.22 

.21 

Pig  iron . 7 . 

. do _ 

.30 

.35 

Wire  nails . 

7.00 

21.45 

26.  77 

1  22. 81 
\  *  .43 

28.39 

*.57 

Snikes _ _ _ 

_ ner  kilo. . 

.45 

.57 

.62} 

.62 

1  As  declared.  *  Per  kilo  in  cases. 


RAILS  AND  FITTINGS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  under  the  above  classi¬ 
fication,  by  countries,  for  1913  in  florins  and  for  1917,  1918,  1919, 
and  1920  in  metric  tons,  the  last-named  year  including  Java  and 
Madoera  only: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920' 

United  States . 

Florins. 

Metric  tons. 
6,036 
1,017 
19 

Metric  tons. 
7,828 
58 

3 

Metric  tons. 
31,967 
5,012 
405 

Metric  tons. 
25,666 
16,884 
407 
752 
307 
437 

Netherlands . 

5,612,587 

107,961 

131,403 

679,816 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Belgium . 

Australia . 

1,214 

6 

165 

2,086 

535 

407 

2 

Singapore . 

11,349 

134 

Japan . 

137 

8 

All  other . 

1,095 

1 

Total . 

6,544,211 

7,207 

9,274 

40,414 

44,598 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

3,849,198 

515,646 

1,962,017 

217,350 

3,300 

1,316 

2,238 

353 

1,744 

424 

7,035 

71 

13,615 

1,927 

24,699 

173 

29,846 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

14,752 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Modoera  only. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


245 


The  only  value  the  1913  figures  have  is  to  show,  by  percentages, 
the  origin  of  the  business.  In  that  year  85  per  cent  of  the  imports 
were  from  the  Netherlands,  10  per  cent  from  Belgium,  2  per  cent 
from  Germany,  and  1-|  per  cent  from  England.  Conditions  were 
about  normal  in  the  colony;  iron  and  steel  prices  were  low,  and 
much  new  construction  was  under  way. 

In  1917  the  United  States  was  the  principal  county  of  origin, 
with  85  per  cent  of  the  total  imports,  while  14  per  cent  came  from 
the  Netherlands  and  a  very  small  balance  from  Singapore  and  Eng¬ 
land.  Prices  according  to  the  American  markets  had  touched  a 
point  260  per  cent  above  the  high  point  in  1913.  After  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  war,  construction  in  Java  dropped  to  the  minimum  of 
necessity,  and  plans  for  development  were  held  in  abeyance  until 
material  should  become  available.  In  1918  there  was  an  increase  in 
imports  of  28  per  cent  over  the  previous  year.  In  this  year  the 
United  States  supplied  84  per  cent  of  the  total.  Australia  appeared 
for  the  first  time  as  an  important  factor  in  this  trade,  with  13  per 
cent  of  the  imports,  while  the  balance  came  from  Japan,  Singapore, 
and  the  Netherlands.  In  1919,  79  per  cent  of  the  total  imports  came 
from  the  United  States,  13  per  cent  from  the  Netherlands,  5  per 
cent  from  Australia,  and  the  balance  from  Great  Britain,  Singapore, 
and  Japan.  Early  in  that  year  Dutch  shipping  was  released  by  the 
Allies,  and  the  accumulated  requirements  of  the  railroads  warranted 
the  heavy  importation.  The  Government  railways  in  that  year  took 
62  per  cent  of  the  imports. 

Of  the  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  only  in  1920,  33  per  cent 
was  for  the  account  of  the  Government.  The  United  States  sup¬ 
plied  58  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  Netherlands  38  per  cent,  Germany 
2  per  cent,  and  the  balance  came  from  England,  Belgium,  Aus¬ 
tralia,  and  Japan. 

The  State  railways  use  rails  of  25.7  and  33.4  kilos  to  the  meter 

in  9-meter  lengths  (1  kilo=2.2046  pounds;  1  meter=39.37  inches). 

The  usual  custom  of  allowing  10  per  cent  shorts  is  not  followed  here, 

but  some  latitude  is  allowed  in  this  respect.  Steel  ties  are  used  for 

switches  and  crossings.  Specifications  for  these  are  on  file  at  the 

purchasing  bureau  of  the  Netherlands  Government  at  17  Battery 

Place,  New  York  Citv. 

«/ 

There  are  many  “tram  lines”  throughout  the  island  of  Java  and 
in  Madoera  and  northern  Sumatra  using  rails  from  18  to  25.7 
kilos  to  the  meter,  and  the  custom  of  using  steel  ties  for  switches 
and  crossings  is  followed  by  these  lines.  The  rails  are  generally 
ordered  in  9-meter  lengths  and  ties  in  5  and  5J  meter  lengths. 

Both  the  Government  and  privately  owned  logging  roads  use 
18-kilo  rails  or  heavier,  but  this  business  is  small. 

Sugar  estates  and  other  plantations  use  rails  of  from  12  to  25 
pounds  to  the  yard  in  lengths  of  5  meters  for  the  16-pound  rails  and 
7  meters  for  18  and  20  pound  rails.  The  gauge  of  these  tracks 
varies.  The  permanent  ways  are  usually  laid  on  wooden  rails,  and 
light  rails  are  made  up  into  portable  sections  with  steel  ties.  No 
variation  in  length  is  permitted  in  filling  orders.  Steel  ties  are 
generally  by  4f f  inches  wide  and  are  bought  in  5.6-meter  lengths/ 

The  mines  use  rails  of  from  8  to  16  pounds  to  the  yard,  with  the 
bulk  of  the  business  in  the  10  and  12  pound  weights.  These  are  all 
in  5-meter  lengths,  and  no  variation  in  length  is  allowed. 


246  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  goods  wagons  (freight  cars)  of  the  State  railways  are  usually 
built  in  lengths  of  5  and  5f  meters,  and  for  rails  of  longer  lengths 
an  extra  charge  for  transportation  is  added.  This  should  be  re¬ 
membered  in  filling  orders  specifying  short  lengths. 

Bolts. — Sizes  of  clip  bolts  required  for  plantation  roads  in  central 
and  eastern  Java,  in  millimeter  sizes,  are  11  by  30  and  11  by  31,  the 
length  being  measured  from  under  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  bolt. 
It  is  the  custom  in  specifying  the  length  of  bolts  in  Java  to  give 
the  length  of  the  bolt  from  under  the  head  to  the  inside  of  the  nut 
with  the  nut  flush  with  the  bolt  end.  In  quoting  prices  and  lengths 
it  will  be  safer  to  state  which  system  is  used. 

Fishplate  bolts,  in  which  most  of  the  business  is  done,  are,  in 
millimeter  sizes,  10  by  42,  11  by  45,  13  by  50,  and  13  by  60  under  the 
head  and  to  the  end  of  the  bolt. 

BRIDGES  AND  PARTS  THEREOF. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  bridges  and  parts,  by 
countries,  for  1913  in  florins  and  for  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  in 
metric  tons: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

United  States . 

Florins. 
1,609 
786, 445 
20, 100 
9,524 
13, 660 
21, 122 

Metric  tons. 
407 
1,601 

Metric  tons. 
15 
59 

Metric  tons. 
2,534 
1,505 

1 

Metric  tons. 

900 

1,261 

169 

20 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Belgium . 

All  other . 

19 

190 

Total . 

852, 460 

2,008 

74 

4,059 

2,540 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

310, 220 
219, 539 

209,233 
113, 468 

1,566 

74 

934 

450 

2,397 

278 

1,425 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

307 

135 

1,115 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


In  1913  practically  all  of  the  bridges  came  from  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  were  fabricated.  In  1917  the  Netherlands  supplied  80 
per  cent  and  the  United  States  20  per  cent,  and  in  1918  the  same  per¬ 
centage  prevailed,  although  the  importations  dropped  in  the  latter 
year  to  3.6  per  cent  of  those  of  1917.  This  does  not  signify  that 
bridge  construction  practically  ceased  in  1918,  as  several  large 
bridges  were  built  locally.  In  1919,  62  per  cent  of  the  imports  came 
from  the  United  States  and  37  per  cent  from  the  Netherlands,  and 
in  1920  (Java  and  Madoera  only)  36  per  cent  came  from  the  United 
States,  50  per  cent  from  the  Netherlands,  and  7  per  cent  from  Great 
Britain. 

The  chief  buyers  of  bridges  are  the  Government’s  State  railways, 
either  through  its  local  purchasing  department  at  Batavia  or  its 
European  or  New  York  offices;  the  Netherlands  Indies  railways  at 
Semarang;  the  Deli  Spoorweg  Maatschappij  in  Sumatra  (Medan, 
’Sumatra  East  Coast),  which  generally  purchases  through  its  head 
office  in  Amsterdam;  and  the  Semarang- Cheribon  Stoomtram  Mij. 
and  its  allied  roads,  under  the  general  supervision  of  R.  P.  van 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


247 


Alplien,  at  Semarang,  which  buys  either  direct  of  through  its  offices 
in  The  Hague. 

There  has  been  very  little  development  in  railway  building  by 
the  privately  owned  roads  during  the  war  and  post-war  years,  and 
the  indications  are  that  the  general  importations  of  bridges  in  the 
two  post-war  years  were  for  resale  to  the  State  railways. 

Most  of  the  bridges  for  the  Government  and  for  private  purchase 
are  built  in  the  machine  shops  in  the  various  ports.  The  general 
practice,  as  in  building  construction,  is  to  use  light  materials  multi¬ 
plied  with  much  labor. 

Bridge  plans  were  worked  out  many  years  ago  for  the  railways 
and  for  the  various  private  uses.  Most  of  these  plans,  however, 
have  not  been  changed  with  the  developments  of  experience  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  so  that  the  standard  bridges  of  the  United  States 
are  an  innovation  not  yet  favorably  looked  upon.  Some  American 
bridges  which  it  was  necessary  to  buy  during  the  war  years  have 
been  found  to  be  very  much  cheaper  when  placed  in  position  than  the 
standard  bridges  of  the  State  railways,  but  local  engineers  are  re¬ 
luctant  to  acknowledge  this. 

WELL  CASING,  TUBING,  AND  PIPE. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  well  casing,  tubing,  and 
pipe,  bv  countries,  in  florins  for  1913  and  in  metric  tons  for  1917, 
1918,  1919,  and  1920: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

Florins. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

198,000 

9,938 

8,335 

15,010 

4,704 

Netherlands . 

2, 951, 000 

855 

866 

1, 415 

8, 530 

Great  Britain . 

233, 000 

937 

2,464 

1,843 

3,349 

Germany . 

1,028,000 

8 

1,259 

Singapore,  Penang,  and  Hongkong . 

89,000 

724 

530 

2,409 

22 

Japan . 

764 

319 

460 

38 

Australia . 

164 

1, 886 

438 

All  other . 

33,000 

4 

107 

31 

119 

Total . 

4, 532, 000 

13,222 

12,785 

23, 062 

18-,  459 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

2, 008, 000 

5,393 

6,099 

8, 660 

17,542 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

2,447,000 

7,667 

5,193 

13, 630 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

68,000 

94 

506 

694 

917 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

9,000 

68 

987 

78 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Of  the  1913  imports,  over  65  per  cent  was  credited  to  the  Nether¬ 
lands  and  23  per  cent  to  Germany,  while  those  from  the  United  States 
are  given  as  4  per  cent  and  Great  Britain  as  5  per  cent.  In  1917, 
75  per  cent  came  from  the  United  States,  6  per  cent  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  7  per  cent  from  Great  Britain,  6  per  cent  from  Japan,  and 
5  per  cent  from  the  oriental  transshipment  ports.  In  1918  the  share 
of  the  United  States  was  65  per  cent;  the  Netherlands,  7  per  cent; 
Great  Britain,  19  per  cent;  Japan,  2J  per  cent;  Australia,  1  per  cent; 
and  the  balance  was  from  oriental  transshipment  ports.  In  1919 


248  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

the  imports  increased  over  1918  by  100  per  cent.  The  United  States 
supplied  65  per  cent  of  this  amount,  the  oriental  transshipment  ports 
10  per  cent,  and  Great  Britain  and  Australia  8  per  cent.  The  re¬ 
turns  for  1920  (Java  and  Madoera  only)  credit  the  Netherlands  with 
46  per  cent,  the  United  States  with  26  per  cent,  Great  Britain  with 
18  per  cent,  and  Germany  with  7  per  cent. 

1  Veil  casing. — A  large  part  of  this  business  was  in  casings  for 
the  oil  wells  which  are  being  bored  in  many  parts  of  the  colony. 
The  principal  importers  of  well  casing  are  the  oil  companies;  other 
piping  is  imported  chiefly  by  the  machinery  and  hardware  importers. 
High-pressure  steam  pipe  is  used  very  little  in  this  colony.  Ordi¬ 
nary  butt  and  lap  welded  pipe  are  used  for  most  purposes,  in  sizes 
from  J  to  6  inches  inside  diameter,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in 
sizes  under  3  inches.  The  English  or  German  threads  are  used. 
There  is  but  little  call  for  galvanized  pipe. 

Steam  tubing  is  quoted  in  inch  sizes  as  follows:  1-J,  If,  If,  If,  2,  2f, 
2f ,  2§,  2i ,  2f,  3,  3f ,  3£,  3f ,  4,  4J,  4|,  4f ,  5,  5J,  5f,  5f ,  and  6  inches, 
outside  measurements;  guaranteed  pressure,  100  atmospheres. 

Cast-iron  fife. — There  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  cast-iron  pipe 
used  in  the  sugar  mills  for  conveying  the  juice  from  one  station 
to  another.  This  pipe  has  to  be  replaced  often,  as  the  acid  in  the 
juice  eats  through  the  cast  iron  quickly.  This  pipe  is  in  various 
sizes,  but  generally  not  larger  than  8  inches,  inside  diameter.  When 
lead  lined  it  lasts  indefinitely,  and  in  the  past  lead-lined  pipe  has  been 
used  to  some  extent. 

Many  plans  are  under  consideration  for  the  building  of  waterworks, 
and  when  these  near  completion  there  will  be  a  big  demand  for  pipe 
for  the  minor  distributing  systems.  The  preliminaries  to  the  financ¬ 
ing  of  these  works  are  moving  slowly. 

Evaf  orator  tubes  are  ordered  by  the  mills  from  the  manufacturers 
of  their  plants.  These  are  of  various  sizes  and  lengths,  according  to 
the  make  of  evaporator  used.  Makers  of  brass  pipe  desiring  to  get 
this  business  would  at  first  have  to  develop  it  directly  with  the  mills, 
as  dealers  here  do  not  stock  this  material. 

Tubes  for  vacuum  pans  are  also  ordered  directly  from  the  mill 
manufacturers,  and  they  are  sent  in  lengths  ready  for  placing.  The 
lengths  and  sizes  vary  according  to  the  make  of  the  machine. 

Dimensions  of  drawn  iron  pipe  from  Europe  are  from  f  to  12 
inches  inside  diameter  and  from  13  to  317  millimeters  outside  diam¬ 
eter,  the  weight  per  meter  running  from  0.57  to  60  kilos. 

GALVANIZED-IRON  ROOFING. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  galvanized  corrugated 
iron,  by  countries,  for  1913,  1917,  1918,  1919,  1920,  and  11  months  of 
1921: 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


249 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

1921 

(11  months 
only).* 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

415 

3,430 

2,798 

1,625 

1,522 

776 

Netherlands . 

3,209 

334 

110 

954 

1,072 

Great  Britain . 

23,139 

849 

1,581 

11,867 

1,578 

British  India,  Penang,  Singa- 

pore,  and  British  Borneo. . . . 

1,664 

61 

30 

332 

108 

Japan . 

14 

219 

113 

Germany . 

228 

Belgium" . 

174 

All  other . 

28 

61 

15 

27 

271 

83 

Total . 

28,857 

4,749 

3,062 

3,675 

14,835 

3,509 

For  private  account: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

17,332 

3,219 

2,275 

1,818 

14,648 

3,509 

Outer  Possessions . 

11, 452 

1,329 

324 

1,201 

For  Government  account . 

73 

201 

463 

656 

187 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

*  Java  and  Madoera  only,  exclusive  of  Government  purchases. 


There  was  a  decrease  in  tonnage  of  imports  in  1917  below  1913 
of  83  per  cent  and  in  1918  of  35  per  cent  below  1917.  In  1913  the 
United  States  supplied  a  little  over  1  per  cent  of  the  total  imports, 
while  11  per  cent  came  from  the  Netherlands,  80  per  cent  from  Great 
Britain,  and  5  per  cent  from  the  oriental  transshipment  ports  (Hong¬ 
kong,  Singapore,  and  Penang) .  In  1917  the  United  States  took  first 
place,  with  72  per  cent  of  the  total  imports ;  Great  Britain  stood  sec¬ 
ond,  with  18  per  cent;  and  the  Netherlands  third,  with  7  per  cent. 
The  year  1918  showed  an  entire  elimination  of  imports  from  Europe. 
The  United  States  provided  92  per  cent  of  the  imports  and  Japan 
7  per  cent.  In  1919  the  United  States  supplied  44  per  cent  and 
Great  Britain  43  per  cent.  In  1920,  of  the  14,835  tons  imported  into 
Java  and  Madoera,  Great  Britain  supplied  80  per  cent,  the  United 
States  10  per  cent,  and  the  Netherlands  6  per  cent.  Of  the  imports 
into  Java  and  Madoera  for  11  months  of  1921,  Great  Britain  sup¬ 
plied  45  per  cent,  the  Netherlands  31  per  cent,  and  the  United  States 
22  per  cent. 

Galvanized  corrugated  iron  for  the  islands  of  Java  and  Madoera 
is  almost  invariably  in  24  gauge,  26  inches  wide,  with  eight  3-inch 
corrugations,  approximately  %  inch  in  depth.  Lengths  run  from 
5  to  10  feet,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in  6  to  8  foot  lengths.  In 
Sumatra  the  demand  is  generally  for  28  gauge,  and  sometimes  for 
31  and  32  gauge,  with  the  other  dimensions  the  same  as  for  Java. 
Packing  is  invariably  in  unlined  skeleton  cases  (crates)  in  approxi¬ 
mately  4-picul  weights,  1  Dutch  East  Indian  picul  equaling  136 
pounds. 

Galvanized  ceiling. — The  appended  figures  show  the  importations 
of  galvanized  iron  ceiling,  by  countries,  for  the  years  under  consider¬ 
ation. 


250  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 

(11  months 
only).* 

TTnitPid  States . . 

Metric  tons. 
125 
123 
277 
14 
94 

Metric  tons. 
60 

Metric  tons. 
13 

Metric  tons. 
293 
34 
37 

Metric  tons. 
314 
102 
499 

Metric  tons. 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

396 

Germany . 7. 

Australia . 

201 

106 

2 

73 

62 

3 

117 

56 

All  other . 

Total . 

633 

261 

121 

437 

980 

569 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

594 

39 

255 

6 

115 

6 

368 

69 

980 

569 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


This  ceiling  is  used  in  the  construction  of  the  better  class  of  houses, 
especially  for  porch  ceiling,  but  for  interiors  it  finds  competition  in 
the  so-called  “  asbestos  board,”  which  is  made  of  a  composition  of 
asbestos  and  cement,  and  offers  some  degree  of  insulation  against  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  Tropics. 

TELEPHONE.  TELEGRAPH.  AND  OTHER  IRON  WIRE. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  iron  wire,  by  countries, 
for  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  : 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 » 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
2,630 
34 
18 

Metric  tons. 
1,493 

Metric  tons. 
1,955 
63 
229 

Metric  tons. 
1,548 
1,053 
517 
494 
376 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

144 

Germany . 

Japan . 

256 

160 

4 

157 

427 

5 

20 

Australia . 9 . 

Philippine  Islands . 

All  otKer . 

437 

250 

225 

Total . 

3,259 

2,506 

2,517 

4,213 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

1,400 

500 

1,244 

115 

• 

1,321 

718 

453 

14 

940 

607 

939 

31 

3,295 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

918 

Total  Outer  Possessions. .  __  . 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  requirements  are  for  plain,  bright,  and  galvanized  wire,  with 
the  bulk  of  the  business  in  galvanized. 

Locally  all  galvanized  wire  is  termed  “  telephone  wire,”  and  all 
except  spring  wire  is  termed  “  iron  wire.”  The  principal  use  for  this 
wire,  outside  the  Government  demand,  is  for  cup  racks  on  the  rub¬ 
ber  trees.  There  are  over  800,000  acres  of  rubber  planted  with  from 
80  to  120  trees  to  the  acre,  and  each  one  of  these  trees  has  a  wire 
ring,  partly  twisted  in  spiral,  which  holds  the  cup  when  it  is  not  in 
use.  Other  uses  are  for  binding  rubber,  tea,  and  other  cases  for 
shipping  and  for  making  the  numberless  utensils  and  trinkets  used 
by  the  natives.  Wire  has  a  strong  competitor  in  bamboo  and  in 
rattan  (cane),  the  former  for  fencing  and  the  latter  for  reinforcing 
cases  for  shipment  and  for  tying.  The  natives  are  adept  in  its  use. 

Standard  telephone  and  telegraph  wire  is  used  by  the  Government 
for  the  municipal  telephone  systems  and  for  the  telegraph  lines,  most 
of  which  it  controls,  and  by  a  few  companies  owning  private  systems. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


251 


Wire  coils  should  be  wrapped  in  paper  and  burlaped  to  insure  their 
arrival  in  good  order. 

Barbed  wire  is  used  to  some  extent,  the  usual  demand  being  for  2 
strand,  12J  gauge,  4  points  at  3-inch  intervals,  galvanized;  wound 
on  reels  weighing  45  kilos  net. 

ELECTRIC  CABLES. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  electric  cables,  by  coun¬ 
tries,  for  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920 : 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
512 

Metric  tons. 
215 

Metric  tons. 
826 

Metric  tons. 

30 

Netherlands . 

21 

1 

125 

412 

Great  Britain . 

14 

44 

33 

Japan . 

250 

898 

379 

Germany . 

190 

All  other  .  _ 

i 

6 

8 

1 

Total . 

548 

472 

1,901 

1,045 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera _ 

11 

44 

473 

453 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

26 

128 

163 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

501 

288 

1,255 

10 

592 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

10 

12 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  Government  is  the  ultimate  purchaser  of  all  the  imports  of 
telephone  and  submarine  cables.  Before  the  war  Germany  was  the 
'  principal  supplier.  The  Westinghouse  Co.,  of  Japan,  and  other 
manufacturers  in  that  country  had  been  sharing  this  business  with 
the  United  States  until  1920,  when  Germany  reappeared  in  the  re¬ 
turns  with  190  tons,  and  the  Netherlands  nominally  supplied  412 
tons. 

ROUNDS,  FLATS,  SHEETS,  AND  PLATES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  under  the  above  classifi¬ 
cation,  by  countries,  for  1917, 1918, 1919, 1920,  and  11  months  of  1921. 
The  1920  and  1921  returns  are  for  J ava  and  Madoera  only. 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 

(11  months 
only).2 

United  States . 

Metric  tons. 
18, 742 
975 
918 

Metric  tons. 
15, 578 
100 
138 
267 
900 
2,075 
4,664 
3,302 

M  trie  tons. 
35, 402 
2,256 
3,063 

Metric  tons. 
27, 212 
20, 257 
7,026 
1, 828 
251 
3,083 
4,289 
5,105 

Metric  tons. 
21,506 
27,756 
1,686 
2,391 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

361 

973 

587 

2,444 

830 

1,200 

4,566 

581 

Japan . 

Australia . 

317 

4,364 

All  other . 

Total . 

25,000 

27, 024 

47, 898 

69, 051 

58,020 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

19,275 

4,982 

657 

86 

20, 281 
4,655 

1,999 

89 

26,699 

7,715 

13,297 

187 

66,231 

58,020 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

2,820 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only.  2  Java  and  Madoera  only,  exclusive  of  Government  purchases. 


Imports  from  the  Netherlands  in  1917  dropped  below  4  per  cent, 
while  Germany  did  not  appear  in  the  returns.  Great  Britain  and 
Japan  had  about  4  per  cent  each,  and  Australia  is  credited  with 


252  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

2  per  cent;  the  share  of  the  United  States  was  75  per  cent,  and  the 
remaining  11  per  cent  was  from  Hongkong,  Singapore,  Sweden,  and 
Canada.  In  1918  the  United  States  is  credited  with  57  per  cent  of  the 
total  imports ;  Australia  with  17  per  cent ;  Japan,  8  per  cent ;  Germany, 
1  per  cent ;  the  Netherlands  and  Great  Britain,  each  one-half  of  1  per 
cent;  and  in  the  remaining  16  per  cent,  Sweden,  Singapore,  Hong¬ 
kong,  China,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  were  represented,  with  the 
largest  part  from  Hongkong,  which  imports  probably  originated 
in  the  United  States.  The  imports  of  1919  show  an  increase  over 
1918  of  77  per  cent.  The  United  States  supplied  74  per  cent; 
Australia,  9  per  cent;  Great  Britain,  6  per  cent;  and  the  Netherlands, 
5  per  cent.  The  imports  for  1920  (Java  and  Madoera  only)  show  an 
increase  over  1919  of  73  per  cent,  and  210  per  cent  over  1918.  The 
United  States  supplied  41  per  cent;  the  Netherlands,  29  per  cent; 
Great  Britain,  10  per  cent ;  and  Australia  6  per  cent. 

Rounds.— Round  mild  steel  is  in  general  demand  from  three- 
sixteenths  up  to  2  inches,  and  importers  normally  carry  considerable 
stocks.  The  smaller  sizes,  from  three-sixteenths  to  five-eighths,  are 
used  largely  for  reinforcing  concrete  work,  and  those  from  three- 
fourths  to  1  inch  are  used  in  the  heavier  construction,  but  there  is 
a  very  limited  demand  for  these  latter  sizes.  Twisted  squares  and 
corrugated  bars  are  not  stocked,  the  engineers  here  claiming  that  no 
advantage  would  be  gained  in  their  use.  It  has  been  the  custom 
to  coil  rounds  under  one-half  inch,  but  American  mills  have  refused 
to  follow  this  practice,  and  these  small  sizes  are  shipped  in  10  to 
12  meter  lengths  (33  to  39  feet)  and  doubled. 

Special  qualities. — Tool,  drill,  and  other  high  grades  of  steel  are 
not  in  demand  from  the  general  trade.  Tools  are  made  by  the 
native  blacksmiths  and  Chinese  ironworkers,  and  while  labor  is 
cheap  it  would  seem  that  the  tools  made  of  mild  steel  will  continue 
to  be  used.  There  is  some  demand  from  the  machine  shops  for  a 
quick-cutting  steel,  but  this  is  generally  bought  on  special  order. 

Spring  steel. — There  is  a  demand  for  spring  steel  throughout  the 
colony.  Most  of  it  is  from  the  native  wagon  makers,  from  the 
machine  shops,  and  from  the  Government  railways.  The  importa¬ 
tion  of  springs  is  practically  nonexistent,  and  all  the  importers 
catering  to  the  general  trade  stock  spring  steel. 

Flats  and  squares  for  stock  are  carried  in  sizes  from  one-fourth  to 
1  inch  by  1  to  5  inches  for  the  general  trade.  The  principal  custom¬ 
ers  of  the  importers  are  the  sugar  centrals,  the  plantation  factories, 
the  Government,  and  the  country  blacksmiths  who  make  the  patchoels 
(called  “  choenkoels  ”  in  Sumatra),  arits,  and  other  agricultural  im¬ 
plements,  horseshoes,  axles,  and  tires.  Some  demand  for  larger 
sizes  is  reported,  but  these  requirements  are  filled  on  special  order. 

Ship  plates. — There  is  a  fair  demand  for  ship  plates  in  Soerabaya, 
principally  from  the  Government  shipyards.  While  there  is  an  oc¬ 
casional  order  for  plates  made  to  measurements,  the  usual  orders  are 
for  stock  sizes  for  repair  work.  Thicknesses  advance  in  sixteenths 
from  three-sixteenths  to  nine-sixteenths  and  in  eighths  from  five- 
eighths  to  1  inch,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in  seven-sixteenths. 
Sizes  for  stock  run  from  3  to  6  feet  in  width  and  from  10  to  30  feet 
in  length.  Quarter-inch  ship  plates  are  used  in  the  construction  of 
railway  freight  cars,  and  dealers  usually  carry  large  stocks  for  the 
Government  demand. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218 


FIG.  25.— TYPE  OF  JAVA  HOTEL  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS. 


FIG.  26.— A  FIRST-CLASS  HOTEL  IN  SINGAPORE. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  27— RAILWAY  STATION  AND  HOTEL  AT  KUALA  LUM  PU  R,  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


253 


Boiler  plates. — The  demand  for  boiler  plates  is  comparatively 
small.  No  boilers  are  built  in  this  colony,  and  such  boiler  plate  as  is 
imported  is  for  repair  work. 

Flange  plates. — An  occasional  inquiry  for  flange  plates  is  reported, 
but  there  is  very  little  demand. 

Plates  for  tanks. — Mild-steel  plates,  tank  quality,  have  been  im¬ 
ported  in  large  quantities  for  the  construction  of  tank  installations 
for  the  vegetable-oil  industry  and  the  installations  of  the  mineral-oil 
companies.  The  bulk  of  this  business  is  in  gauges  of  three-six¬ 
teenths,  one-fourth,  and  three-eighths  inch.  For  new  construction 
specifications  are  provided,  but  there  is  a  steady  demand  on  locally 
held  stocks  for  repairs. 

Sheets. — Most'  of  the  business  in  sheets  is  done  in  28  B.  G.  gal¬ 
vanized,  in  sizes  of  3  by  6  feet  and  3  by  8  feet. 

Beams. — Structural  sizes  are  used  very  little  in  this  colony,  the 
engineers  claiming  that  it  costs  less  to  build  up  the  desired  strength 
from  small  shapes  and  flat  iron,  using  the  cheap  local  labor  to  save 
the  material  which  is  comparatively  more  expensive.  There  is  some 
demand  in  eastern  Java  for  large  sizes. 

Small  shapes  in  large  quantities  are  needed  for  building  the  ware¬ 
houses,  sugar  sheds,  factory  buildings,  and  the  numerous  planta¬ 
tion  buildings  required  in  this  country  or  torrential  rains.  As  strong 
winds  do  not  prevail  in  this  colony,  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide 
against  heavy  wind  strains.  Light  beams  are  sufficient  for  most  pur¬ 
poses.  Engineering  houses  have  built  up  standardized  plans  cover¬ 
ing  the  wide  range  of  construction  in  the  colony,  all  of  which  have 
been  worked  in  the  so-called  “  German  sizes,”  and  engineers  have 
become  so  familiar  with  the  metric  system  and  the  factors  of  strength 
in  these  German  sizes  that  little  thought  and  little  office  work  was  in¬ 
volved  in  the  construction  of  ordinary  buildings. 

Djati  wood  as  a  competitor  of  steel  l>eams. — Large  forests  of 
Djati  wood  have  been  planted  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  Java, 
and  beams  made  from  this  very  fine  wood  make  an  excellent  and 
durable  under  roof  in  competition  with  steel  beams.  This  wood  is 
used  in  many  warehouses  in  the  ports,  but  the  supply  is  not  as  great 
as  the  need,  and  difference  in  construction  cost  is  not  a  great  factor. 

WIRE  NAILS. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  wire  nails  for  private 
and  Government  account,  by  countries,  for  1913,  1917,  1918,  1919, 
1920,  and  the  first  11  months  of  1921 : 


Countries. 


United  States . 

Netherlands...* . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Singapore,  etc . 

Japan . 

All  other . 

Total . . . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera 
Total  Outer  Possessions. 


1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 

(11  months 
only).* 

Kegs. 

28, 456 
88, 902 
11,670 
29,418 
23,192 

Kegs. 

77, 006 
6,966 
3, 460 

Kegs. 

88,372 

Kegs. 

98, 792 
2,035 

Kegs. 
78,372 
32,268 
5,967 
28, 474 

Kegs. 

47, 544 
23,000 
5,913 
43,285 

2,509 

31, 164 
915 
60 

48, 508 
16,083 
26 

10,096 
9,886 
1, 833 

2,100 

5,912 

9,149 

17, 710 

190,787 

119, 571 

155, 498 

122,642 

153,093 

137, 452 

112, 113 
78, 674 

76, 192 
43,379 

121, 125 
’  -  34,373 

102, 547 
20,095 

153,093 

137, 452 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


2  Exclusive  of  Government  purchases. 


254  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

In  1913  the  United  States  was  credited  with  15  per  cent  of  the 
imports,  the  greater  part  of  the  business  being  with  the  Netherlands. 
In  1918  the  United  States  supplied  57  per  cent;  in  1919,  80  per  cent; 
in  1920,  51  per  cent  (Java  and  Madoera  only) ;  and  for  the  first  11 
months  of  1921,  34  per  cent.  In  the  two  last-named  years  the 
Netherlands  supplied  21  per  cent  and  17  per  cent,  respectively,  and 
Germany  18  per  cent  and  31  per  cent. 

This  market  requires  only  countersunk,  checkered  head  nails,  but 
the  style  of  packages  varies  with  almost  every  commercial  district. 
The  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  (Medan)  requires  all  its  purchases  to 
be  packed  in  paper  packages  of  1J  and  2  pounds  gross  weight,  packed 
in  kegs  of  37 J  and  50  pounds,  net  package  contents. 

Macassar  wants  its  nails  in  bulk  in  kegs  of  50  kilos  net ;  Batavia, 
59  kilos;  Soerabaya,  60  kilos;  Padang,  in  Sumatra  West  Coast,  re¬ 
quires  various  weights,  but  the  usual  one  is  34  kilos.  While  the 
above  packages  are  the  usual  ones  imported,  there  are  also  special 
requirements  for  kegs  of  23  kilos,  56  kilos,  and  58  kilos,  and  some 
trade  requires  their  purchases  to  be  put  up  in  cases. 

The  imports  of  nails  in  cases  are  not  shown  in  the  above  figures. 
In  1919  there  were  40,671  cases  imported,  20,095  of  which  went  to 
the  outlying  districts,  as  follows:  Palembang,  7,649  cases,  and  Telok- 
betong,  7,500  cases,  both  in  Sumatra;  Belawan  Deli,  1,758  cases;  and 
other  ports,  3,188  cases.  Java  and  Madoera  took  20,578  cases,  which 
were  probably  destined  for  ports  in  the  Outer  Possessions. 

The  ports  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  handle  cargo  in  a  very  care¬ 
less  manner,  and  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  complaint  regarding 
loss  by  breakage.  Bad  packing  invariably  reacts  unfavorably  on 
the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  and  in  their  own  interests  mills  pack¬ 
ing  nails  for  Netherlands  East  Indian  ports  should  see  that  only 
strong  wood  is  used  in  the  kegs.  One  of  the  largest  American  mills 
has  worked  out  the  packing  of  nails  so  that  it  receives  very  few 
complaints.  All  kegs  weighing  100  pounds  or  over  should  have  a 
cleat  across  each  end.  It  is  a  safe  practice  to  put  bilge  wire  on  every 
keg  and  to  use  the  special  chime  hoops  that  can  only  be  torn  off 
by  extraordinary  strain. 

SPIKES. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  spikes,  by  countries,  for 
1917,  1918,  1919,  1920,  and  for  11  months  of  1921 : 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 

(11  months 
only),  i 

United  States . . . . . 

Metric  tons. 
252 

Metric  tons. 
172 

Metric  tons. 
1,601 

Metric  tons. 
316 

Metric  tons. 

86 

"N  eth  p.rl  and  s  . . _ . 

337 

2 

262 

158 

212 

Great  Britain.... . 

29 

6 

17 

143 

66 

Germany  . 

4 

5 

35 

134 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

208 

333 

178 

13 

2 

Japan  . 

39 

80 

32 

8 

Australia . . . 

30 

151 

34 

12 

All  other . 

13 

2 

33 

309 

37 

Total . 

882 

625 

2,279 

1,008 

557 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

103 

346 

1,831 

1,008 

557 

'Total  Outer  Possessions 

779 

279 

448 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


255 


There  are  two  types  of  rail  spikes  used  in  this  colony — the  regular 
spike,  as  used  in  the  United  States,  and  the  “  dog-ear  ”  spike.  The 
latter  spike  has  a  lug  on  the  outside  designed  to  withstand  the  heavy 
strain  to  which  the  head  is  subjected  when  pulled  out  of  the  hardwood 
ties.  These  are  more  in  demand  for  the  light  railways. 

Bail  screws  are  also  used  in  millimeter  sizes  of  15  by  100  and 

20  by  120. 

A  great  deal  of  complaint  has  been  made  against  America’s  pack¬ 
ing  of  spikes  and  bolts,  these  generally  being  packed  in  kegs  of  200 
pounds  and  over,  which  are  not  strong  enough  to  give  the  necessary 
security.  European  shippers  before  the  war  packed  this  heavy  ma¬ 
terial  in  cases,  reinforced  by  two  wooden  cleats  on  all  sides  with  a 
reinforced  head.  The  additional  space  taken  by  this  kind  of  a  pack¬ 
age  does  not  call  for  an  extra  charge  for  freight,  as  it  would  in 
lighter  packages,  and  offers  a  security  that  the  kegs  can  not  give. 

In  packing  for  this  market  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  con¬ 
tainers  must  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  strains  from  the  outside 
as  well  as  the  inside.  Heavy  cargo  of  this  kind  is  generally  stowed 
together  on  a  ship,  and  in  the  “working”  of  the  cargo  at  sea  kegs 
often  have  to  stand  a  constant  hammering  that  wrecks  them  entirely. 
This,  added  to  the  very  rough  handling  they  receive  in  the  Java 
ports,  occasions  losses  that  the  consignees  have  to  stand. 

The  trade  propaganda  that  has  used  the  alleged  “  bad  packing  ”  of 
American  exporters  as  its  principal  foundation  will  lose  much  of  its 
effect  if  American  mills  will  look  carefully  into  the  question  of  pack¬ 
ing  these  heavy  commodities  and  will  offer  their  customers  adequate 
packing,  at  an  additional  charge,  if  need  be. 

OTHER  IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCTS. 

The  Division  of  Imports  and  Exports  has  divided  the  balances, 
after  considering  each  separate  classification,  into  two  general 
classes — “iron  and  steel  not  otherwise  mentioned”  and  “iron  and 
steel  ware  not  otherwise  mentioned.” 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  imports,  by  countries,  of  iron 
and  steel  products  separately  classified,  including  iron  and  steel  bars, 
rails,  bridges,  tubes  and  pipes,  galvanized  sheets,  telegraph  and  tele¬ 
phone  wire  and  cables,  tin  plate,  axles,  cooking  pans,  wire  nails,  and 
spikes,  for  the  years  1913,  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920 : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

United  States  . 

Florins. 

22,342 
6, 108, 853 
722,884 
637,752 
397,305 

Florins. 
1,405,747 
725, 730 
228, 142 

Florins. 

1, 376, 783 
165, 276 
195,067 
8, 560 

Florins. 
4,062, 197 
2,566,482 
604, 623 
194,517 

Florins. 
4,349, 161 
7,333,639 
1,922,424 
2,163,301 
140, 820 
883,547 
358,728 
125,344 
433, 111 

TCe.th  erl  an  d  s 

Great  Britain  . 

fiprmanv  . 

Belfnnm  . 

Japan  . 

110,911 
5, 004 

2,056,960 

1,077,043 

165,403 

156,387 

1,379,668 

Ot.np.r  TCnronpan  . 

Australia  . 

187,903 
506, 587 

All  other . 

266,720 

165,946 

Total . 

8, 155,856 

2,641,480 

4,497, 136 

10,206, 320 

17,710,075 

For  private  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera  . 

4,512,428 
1,805, 123 

1,589,732- 
248, 573 

1,238,393 

760,469 

428,007 

214,541 

3,272,117 

777,972 

369, 716 
77,331 

6,780,870 

2,586,821 

793,411 

45, 218 

17,017, 158 

Total  Onter  Possessions  ... . . 

For  Government  account: 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

692,917 

Total  Onter  Possessions. . . 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


256 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Other  items  included  in  the  above  table  are  patchoels  (called  “  chun- 
koels ”  in  Sumatra  and  British  Malaya),  arits,  and  other  agricultural 
implements,  and  the  various  cables  for  hoisting,  pulling,  and  trans¬ 
mission.  Many  of  these  items  will  be  reported  on  separately. 

The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  imports  of  “  iron  and  steel 
ware  not  otherwise  mentioned,”  by  countries,  for  the  years  1913, 
1917, 1918, 1919,  and  1920  (1  florin=$0.402  mint  par  U.  S.) : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

United  States . 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britian . . 

Germany . 

Belgium . 

Florins. 

187,  497 
4, 992, 201 
662, 306 
1, 327, 117 
168, 895 
40,  951 
73, 973 
752,  808 
38, 297 

Florins. 

1, 256, 584 
943, 185 
571, 388 
5,743 

Florins. 

1, 345, 575 
208, 821 
289, 005 
17, 193 

Florins. 

3, 806, 625 
1, 378, 138 
433, 136 
22, 112 

Florins. 

2, 353, 090 
3, 718, 925 
1, 045, 134 
1,121,717 

Australia . 

26,  479 
42,  822 
823, 156 
61, 880 
672, 505 
49, 253 

58,  Oil 
9,490 
767,  545 
128, 728 
1, 415,  833 
40,456 

Other  European . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Hongkong  and  China . 

Japan . 

77, 741 
479, 916 
21,  251 
661,  206 
608, 996 

764,031 
54,749 
19, 591 
134,  915 
236,880 

AU  other . 

Total . 

For  private  account: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

For  Government  account: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

51, 252 

8, 295,  297 

4, 462, 995 

4, 280, 657 

7, 489, 121 

9, 449, 032 

4, 117,  865 
2,  431,  828 

1, 497,  031 
248,  573 

2, 462, 913 
1, 471, 344 

304, 197 
214,  541 

2, 607,  336 
1, 392, 408 

203,  582 
77, 331 

4, 159,  898 
1, 931,  365 

1, 165, 120 
232, 738 

7, 517, 001 

1, 932, 031 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

WIRE  ROPE. 


The  ports  of  Soerabaya,  Batavia,  and  Semarang  require  wire 
rope  in  considerable  quantities  for  hoists  and  various  other  harbor 
uses,  and  Macassar,  Celebes;  Tjilatjap  and  Cheribon,  in  Java;  and 
Oosthaven,  Padang,  and  Belawan  Deli',  in  Sumatra,  to  a  lesser  ex¬ 
tent.  The  requirements  for  the  harbor  works  are  brought  through 
the  Burgerlijke  Openbare  Werken  (B.  O.  W.),  the  public  works 
department  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  Government,  with  head 
offices  at  Batavia, 

The  sugar  mills  use  wire  rope  for  their  hoists  which  unload  the 
cane  from  the  wagons  and  for  various  other  purposes.  There  seems 
to  be  some  ignorance  in  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  metal  in 
the  ropes  used,  and  it  would  be  of  advantage  to  American  manu¬ 
facturers  catering  to  this  trade  to  provide  the  mills  with  directions 
for  ordering.  One  order  specified  the  strands,  hemp  cores,  and 
sizes,  but  no  mention  was  made  of  the  speed,  size  of  drum,  and  load. 

Some  American  transmission  rope  is  in  use  in  the  colony  and  in 
every  case  noted  was  giving  better  satisfaction  than  rope  formerly 
brought  from  Europe. 

Before  the  slump  in  the  price  of  tea  the  owners  of  several  of  the 
tea  estates  were  planning  to  equip  them  with  overhead  cableways 
for  carrying  the  leaves  from  outlying  sections  to  the  factories.  The 
low  prices  for  tea  which  have  prevailed  during  the  past  two  years 
have  retarded  these  transportation  plans,  but  they  will  be  revived 
with  the  recovery  of  the  tea  market. 

The  Portland  Cement  Fabriek,  Padang,  Sumatra,  transports  its 
rock  from  the  quarry  to  the  mill  on  an  overhead  cableway  and  its 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


257 


cement  to  the  port  of  Padang,  13  kilometers  (8  miles)  distant,  on  a 
cableway,  bringing  coal  on  the  return.  The  carrying  cable  from 
the  quarry  to  the  mill  is  a  special  closed  lay  lock  cable  of  32  milli¬ 
meters,  has  a  9-wire  core,  and  is  1,600  meters  long.  The  traveling 
cable  is  14  millimeters,  6  strands  of  7  wires,  long  lay,  and  has  one 
hemp  core;  wires,  1.5  millimeters;  strength,  130  kilos  to  1  square 
millimeter;  speed,  2.5  meters  per  second;  minimum  bend,  5  to  6 
feet.  The  carrying  cable  from  the  mill  to  the  port  is  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  quarry  cable.  The  traveling  cable  is  of  16  milli¬ 
meters,  6  strands  of  7  wires  each,  1  hemp  core,  long  lay;  wire,  1.7 
millimeters;  strength,  180  kilos  to  the  square  millimeter;  speed,  2.5 
meters  per  second. 

Wire  rope  is  used  in  the  logging  camps  in  regular  logging  sizes. 

The  Ombilin  coal  mine,  near  Padang,  Sumatra,  owned  by  the 
Government,  uses  a  large  quantity  of  wire  rope.  The  full  dimen¬ 
sions  of  all  the  cable  used  could  not  be  learned,  but  the  following 
information  will  show  something  of  the  requirements :  Main  cable- 
way  from  tunnel  level  to  skip,  turning  on  9-foot  wheel :  1,700  meters 
long;  29  millimeters;  6  strands  of  7  wires,  1  hemp  core  (Craddock)  ; 
renewed  once  each  year.  The  yearly  consumption  of  other  cables 
shows  the  following  figures:  5,000  meters  of  three- fourths-inch  cable, 
8,000  meters  of  five-eighths  inch,  and  12,000  meters  of  one-half  inch. 

The  Government  owns  two  other  coal  mines  where  large  quanti¬ 
ties  of  wire  rope  are  used,  as  well  as  tin  mines  on  the  island  of 
Banka,  and  is  opening  up  a  new  tin-bearing  area  on  the  island  of 
Timor. 

The  State  railways  use  considerable  quantities  of  cable  in  their 
shops. 

The  marine  establishment  (department  of  marine)  of  the  colo¬ 
nial  government  is  a  large  consumer  of  wire  rope  of  industrial  and 
ships’  dimensions. 

The  privately  owned  tin  mines  on  the  islands  of  Billiton  and 
Singkep  are  also  consumers  of  no  small  importance. 

The  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij,  operating  about  100 
steamships  in  the  interisland  trade,  buys  large  quantities  of  wire 
rope  for  its  ships,  as  well  as  for  its  coal  mines  which  are  being  opened 
up  in  Borneo. 

The  machinery  houses  and  general  importers  stock  wire  rope  in 
staple  dimensions  for  the  immediate  requirements  of  the  trade. 

BRITISH  MALAYA  IMPORTS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

No  figures  of  imports  have  any  value  as  an  estimate  of  the  con¬ 
suming  capacity  of  the  British  possessions  in  Malaya.  Singapore 
and  Penang  are  transshipment  ports,  and  large  cargoes  are  passed 
through  the  customs  that  do  not  go  into  consumption  within  the 
British  possessions. 

The  rubber  estates  and  the  tin  mines  are  not  large  consumers. 
For  many  years  before  the  market  slump  in  1920  large  quantities 
of  reinforcing  rods  were  used  in  building  and  harbor  construction. 
Few  new  contracts  for  buildings  have  been  let  since  July,  1920,  but 
such  buildings  as  were  under  contract  at  that  time  have  been  com¬ 
pleted. 


258  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

There  is  a  population  of  about  3,600,000  in  the  British  Malayan 
possessions,  2,000,000  of  which  are  producers  of  agricultural  prod¬ 
ucts  or  are  mine  workers  or  business  or  professional  men  depend¬ 
ent  on  these  or  relative  industries.  The  first  buyers  of  iron  and 
steel  are  the  European  importers  and  dealers,  the  European  ma¬ 
chinery  and  engineering  construction  companies,  occasionally  the 
building  contractors,  and  the  Chinese  importers.  The  trade  within 
the  British  possessions  is  with  the  Chinese  retailers  and  contractors, 
the  European  construction  contractors,  the  estates,  and  the  mines. 
The  largest  trade  is  with  the  Chinese  retailers  and  contractors,  and 
it  is  with  special  regard  to  this  trade  that  the  following  data  are 
submitted : 

Rounds. — The  bulk  of  the  business  in  round  iron  is  in  sizes  of 
f,  f,  f,  f,  f,  f,  and  1  inch,  and  these  sizes  are  stocked  by  dealers. 
Lengths  should  be  from  12  feet  to  a  maximum  of  16  feet  for  the 
general  trade,  as  longer  lengths  involve  difficult  transportation  prob¬ 
lems,  but  for  the  building  contractors  30  to  40  foot  lengths  are 
wanted.  The  use  of  concrete  in  construction  is  increasing  and  is 
usually  for  works  of  considerable  size.  The  reinforcing  iron  for  the 
big  contractors  is  stocked  by  the  large  European  houses,  and  this 
trade  is  distinct  from  the  general  trade  in  the  interior,  where  bars 
are  used  largely  in  windows  and  for  railings  and  other  auxiliaries 
to  wood  and  brick  construction. 

Squares  in  sizes  of  If,  If,  If,  2,  and  2f  inches  are  in  big  demand 
for  axles.  Besides  the  above,  dealers  stock  those  of  If,  If,  and  If 
inches,  but  the  volume  of  business  in  these  sizes  is  comparatively 
small. 

Flats  are  stocked  by  dealers  in  widths  of  If  to  6  inches  and  from 
f  to  f  inch  in  thickness.  Other  sizes  and  heavier  than  1  inch  are 
sometimes  called  for  on  special  order,  but  are  not  carried  in  stock 
by  the  Chinese  dealers. 

SHAPES  AND  STRUCTURAL  STEEL. 

The  use  of  steel  in  building  construction  and  in  the  tin  mines  has 
created  a  considerable  demand  for  small  shapes,  and  for  I  beams  up 
to  8  inches.  The  trade  is  large  in  the  following  sizes,  which  are  all 
stocked  by  dealers: 

Tees ,  equal  angles ,  and  unequal  angles. — Tees  are  carried  in  sizes 
of  1  by  1,  If  by  If,  If  by  If,  If  by  If,  If  by  2,  2  by  2,  and  2f  by  2f 
inches;  equal  angles  in  sizes  of  1,  If,  If,  If,  2,  and  2f  inches;  and 
unequal  angles  in  sizes  of  If  by  1,  If  by  If,  If  by  If,  2  by  If,  2f  by 
2,  and  3  by  2  inches. 

I  beams. — The  demand  is  for  I  beams  of  36  feet  in  length  for  all 
sizes  except  8  by  5  and  7  by  4  inches,  which  are  sometimes  ordered 
in  40-foot  lengths.  In  the  construction  of  Chinese  “shop  houses” 
that  carry  masonry  above,  I  beams  are  coming  into  general  use. 
In  Penang,  7  by  4  inch  stock  is  carried,  especially  for  the  Kedah 
trade.  Stock  sizes  are  as  follows:  6  by  4f  and  5 ;  7  by  4;  8  by  4,  5, 
and  6 ;  9  by  4,  6,  and  7 ;  10  by  5,  6,  and  8 ;  12  by  5  and  6 ;  14  by  6 ; 
and  15  by  6  inches,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in  8  by  5  and  7 
by  4  inches. 

Tire  steel  is  stocked  in  sizes  f  by  3,  f  by  3  and  3f,  and  f  by  4  inches, 
but  owing  to  the  lack  of  facilities  in  the  ordinary  native  blacksmith 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


259 


shops  for  handling  this  material  and  its  high  cost  the  smiths  prefer 
to  use  mild  steel,  which  they  easeharden  by  the  methods  known  to 
them.  The  tire-steel  trade  is  very  small. 

Drill  steel. — There  is  a  small  demand  for  drill  steel  in  f-inch 
round  and  hexagon,  principally  in  the  latter.  This  business  is 
handled  principally  by  the  foreign  importers  for  sale  direct  to  the 
mines. 

Tool  steel. — A  tool  steel  known  in  this  market  as  “bamboo”  steel 
is  used  generally  throughout  British  Malaya.  This  name  was 
originally  a  trade  name  for  a  steel  manufactured  specially  for  the 
trade  of  the  Far  East,  and  it  was  found  so  suitable  for  these  markets 
that  other  manufacturers  put  out  a  similar  quality  with  similar 
packing.  This  is  a  cheap  tool  steel,  packed  for  this  market  in  Afoot 
lengths  in  cases  of  1  picul  (133J  pounds).  The  bulk  of  the  trade  is 
in  f,  and  1  inch  rounds. 

There  is  no  demand  for  plow  and  pick  steel. 

Plates. — Tank  plates  are  stocked  in  8  by  4  feet  by  ^  and  Ty  inch, 
and  for  the  tin  mines  in  8  by  4  feet  by  and  £  inch. 

Galvanized  mild-steel  'plates  for  small  tanks,  garbage  cans,  night 
pails,  and  for  general  uses  are  stocked  in  sizes  8  by  4  feet  by  16,  18, 
20,  22,  24,  and  30  Birmingham  gauge. 

BOX  STRAPPING  AND  HOOP  IRON. 

Many  of  the  products  passing  through  Penang  and  Singapore  on 
their  way  to  the  world’s  markets  are  repacked.  Whenever  possible 
cane  is  used  for  tying  and  reinforcing  bundles,  but  where  cases  are 
used  the  cane  ropes  add  materially  to  the  bulk  of  the  packages,  and 
so  iron  strapping  is  commonly  used.  This  applies  particularly  to 
rubber  when  packed  in  momi  chests  (sawn  wood  chests,  usually  im¬ 
ported  from  Japan).  The  veneer  chests,  in  which  a  large  part  of 
the  rubber  exports  is  packed,  are  reinforced  with  light  iron  angles 
on  all  corners  and  require  no  strapping. 

Plain  strapping,  or  hoop  iron,  is  stocked  in  coils  weighing  56 
pounds  net',  and  the  larger  part  of  the  business  is  in  sizes  of  and 
|  inch  by  29  Birmingham  gauge  for  baling,  for  rubber  cases,  and 
for  general  uses,  and  in  |  inch  by  26  Birmingham  gauge  and  1  inch 
by  22  Birmingham  gauge  for  ties  for  the  scaffolding  of  tin  mines 
and  for  general  uses. 

Patented  strapping,  in  reels  of  300-foot  lengths,  is  generally  dented 
or  dotted  so  that  the  nails  can  easily  be  driven  in  a  slanting  manner 
and  so  take  up  the  slack  when  strapping  cases.  Box  strapping 
should  be  of  a  high  tensile  strength.  American  manufacturers 
hold  a  large  part  of  this  business  on  account  of  the  strength  and 
flexibility  of  their  product. 

IRON  PIPE  AND  WIRE  ROPE. 

Galvanized  iron  pipe  is  stocked  by  importers  in  various  sizes, 
running  from  ^  to  5  inches,  and  in  lengths  of  16  feet,  also  black  iron 
pipes  and  ordinary  black  pipe  in  the  same  sizes.  Whitworth  (or 
English)  threading  is  required,  and  each  joint  is  fitted  with  one 
sleeve. 

Black,  riveted  flanged  piping  of  6,  7,  and  10  inch  diameters  is 
used  very  extensively  in  the  tin  mines  for  pumping  and  hydraulick- 

19878°— 23 - 18 


260  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

ing,  and  is  carried  in  stock  by  some  of  the  importers.  The  same  type 
of  piping  is  used  by  the  larger  mines  in  sizes  from  12  inches  up 
to  36  inches  (in  the  case  of  two  of  the  mines),  but  these  pipes  are 
either  made  locally  or  ordered  specially. 

There  are  large  quantities  of  wire  rope  used  in  the  tin  mines  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  particularly  on  the  tin  dredges  and  the  open¬ 
cast  mines  using  cableways. 

The  ship  chandlers  and  European  and  Chinese  importers  carry 
some  stocks  of  wire  rope  for  the  general  trade  and  the  shipping. 

The  harbor  works  are  not  equipped  with  an  extensive  crane  sys¬ 
tem,  most  of  the  cargo  being  delivered  by  the  ship’s  tackle  on  cars  or 
on  the  dock  and  trucked  to  the  warehouses. 

MOTOR-VEHICLE  MARKET. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Until  the  war  shut  out  imports  from  Europe  the  people  of  Java 
knew  little  about  American  automobiles.  There  was  much  of  the 
sort  of  misinformation  that  has  attended  the  introduction  of  Ameri¬ 
can  automobiles  in  other  countries  where  they  came  in  close  compe¬ 
tition  with  European  makes,  and,  while  they  had  begun  to  make  a 
small  place  for  themselves,  they  were  not  appreciated  in  the  popular 
mind.  European-made  cars  (such  as  the  Italian  F.  I.  A.  T. ;  the 
French  Lorraine  Dietrich,  Berliet,  and  Brasier;  the  Belgian 
Minerva;  the  Dutch  Spijker;  the  German  Opel  and  Protos;  and  the 
English  Sideley-Wolseley,  Napier,  Austin,  and  Sunbeam)  were  all 
well  known  and  were  looked  upon  as  the  last  word  in  mechanical 
efficiency  and  finish. 

The  European  automobiles  brought  high  prices,  and  the  European 
manufacturers  were  eager  to  meet  the  special  requirements  of  this 
market,  which  was  important  to  them.  Special  body  designs  were 
provided,  copper  radiators  (supposed  to  be  suited  to  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  Tropics)  were  furnished  on  order,  and  the  engines 
were  finished  with  copper  and  brass  trimmings ;  but  such  American 
innovations  as  self-starters,  storage  batteries,  and  electric  lights  were 
looked  upon  askance. 

The  war  brought  about  a  revolution  in  the  trade.  European 
cars  could  not  be  bought  and  the  dealers  tried  to  get  American 
cars  without  electrical  equipment,  insisted  on  having  magnetos,  and 
tried  to  induce  American  manufacturers  to  change  their  models  and 
equipment  to  suit  the  habits  of  their  trade.  The  American  auto¬ 
mobile,  through  its  mechanical  efficiency,  structural  strength,  and 
high  power  proportionate  to  weight,  has  won  a  firm  place  in  the 
market.  During  this  time  American  manufacturers  have  had  an 
opportunity  to  make  their  position  in  the  trade  almost  impregnable, 
and  through  their  manufacturing  ability  they  have  gone  far  toward 
accomplishing  that  end,  so  far  as  passenger  cars  are  concerned ;  but 
as  continental  Europe  becomes  able  to  compete  for  the  trade,  Ameri¬ 
can  makers  will  find  that  greater  care  in  cultivating  the  market  and 
extending  to  the  users  the  service  that  American  owners  enjoy  will 
give  them  the  additional  strength  necessary  to  maintain  their  position. 

In  the  motor-truck  trade,  which  has  developed  rapidly  during 
the  last  three  years,  America’s  position  is  not  strong.  Continental 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


261 


European  manufacturers  have  been  able  to  offer  a  truck  of  equiva¬ 
lent  capacity  and  power  at  a  very  much  lower  price  than  was  being 
asked  for  American  trucks,  and  German  trucks  were  increasingly 
in  evidence  on  the  roads  during  1921. 

Notwithstanding  the  proven  efficiency  of  the  American  machine, 
there  is  still  a  very  definite  prejudice  in  favor  of  European  cars  in 
the  minds  of  many  people,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the  Euro¬ 
pean  cars  get  the  preference. 

COMMERCIAL  DIVISIONS  AND  ROADS. 

The  grand  commercial  divisions  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  automotive  vehicle  trade,  are  six  in  num¬ 
ber,  based  on  the  established  trade  organizations  and  the  island  and 
road  groupings.  There  are  several  subdivisions  in  which  the  business 
is  handled  through  subagents. 

1.  The  west  Java  division  is  based  on  Batavia,  with  an  important 
subdivision  based  on  Bandoeng,  the  mountain  capital.  It  includes 
the  Lampong  district  in  southern  Sumatra  and  the  Preanger  Regen¬ 
cies  and  the  Residencies  of  Bantam,  Batavia,  and  Cheribon  in  Java. 
In  the  Lampong  district'  there  are  a  few  light  grades  on  less  than 
100  miles  of  good  roads,  but  many  miles  of  plantation  roads  are  of 
dirt  construction  with  varying  grades.  In  western  Java  there  is  a 
large  mileage  of  roadway  of  good  construction  for  light  motor  traffic, 
but  the  fine  metaling  is  usually  washed  off  by  the  heavy  rains  soon 
after  the  completion  of  repairs.  This  part  of  the  island  is  level  on 
the  north  coast,  with  undulating  stretches  between  the  plains  and  the 
massed  mountain  regions,  where  the  grades  are  long  and  steep,  with 
very  few  level  stretches  except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Ban¬ 
doeng.  Many  of  the  plantation  roads,  of  which  there  is  a  large 
aggregate  mileage,  are  well  built,  but  in  the  course  of  their  duties  the 
managers  often  tax  their  cars  to  the  limit  on  the  poorly  constructed 
auxiliary  dirt  roads. 

All  of  the  more  important  automobile  companies  of  the  colony 
have  their  head  offices  in  Batavia,  with  the  exception  of  one,  which  is 
located  at  Bandoeng.  There  is  an  adequate  service  organization  in 
Batavia  and  Bandoeng,  and  spare  parts  can  usually  be  obtained  for 
all  the  cars  properly  represented. 

2.  The  central  Java  division  is  based  on  Semarang  and  includes 
the  Residencies  of  Semarang,  Soerakarta,  Djokjakarta,  Kedoe,  Ban- 
joemas,  and  Pekalongan.  This  part  of  Java  is  made  up  of  a  coastal 
plain  on  the  north  and  southwest,  with  high  volcanic  mountains  ris¬ 
ing  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three  Avith  Ioav  saddles  between. 
There  is  a  well-developed  road  system,  but  the  standard  of  upkeep  is 
lower  than  in  west  or  east  Java.  The  plantation  roads  are  not  so 
good  as  in  the  Preanger  Regencies  or  in  east  Java,  and  the  grades 
on  both  GoA^ernment  and  plantation  roads  are  heavy.  Soerakarta 
and  Djokjakarta  are  the  centers  of  two  subdivisions.  At  these  points 
heavy  repairs  can  be  made  as  well  as  at  Semarang,  where  full  stocks 
of  parts  are  carried.  Some  of  the  Batavia  automobile  companies 
have  branches  at  Semarang,  and  there  are  several  local  companies, 
not  equipped  for  general  distribution,  that  can  gi\re  good  local 
representation. 


262 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


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IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


263 


3.  The  east  Java  district  is  based  on  Soerabaya  and  includes  the 
Residencies  of  Soerabaya,  Rembang,  Madioen,  Ivediri,  Pasoeroean, 
and  Besoeki,  in  Java;  the  islands  lying  to  the  east,  including  Ma- 
doera,  Bali  and  Lombok,  the  island  of  Celebes,  all  the  islands  to  the 
east,  and  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Residencies  of  Borneo. 

That  part  of  this  district  lying  on  the  island  of  Java  has  a  very 
extensive  road  system,  including  several  fine  highways.  These  radi¬ 
ate  across  the  lowlands  to  Semarang,  Soerakarta,  and  the  southeast 
residencies,  and  into  the  several  mountain  groups,  where  there  are 
considerable  plantation  areas  and  many  resorts.  In  the  lower  lands 
the  Government  roads  cut  the  plantations,  and  such  plantation  roads 
as  are  necessary  are  of  fairly  good  construction.  In  the  mountain 
districts  the  Government  roads  have  heavy  grades,  where  the  same 
difficulties  with  metaling  are  experienced  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
island.  The  plantation  roads  of  the  highlands  are  poor,  with  heavy 
grades. 

The  principal  Batavia  automobile  companies  have  branches  in 
Soeraba}Ta,  and  several  local  companies  have  good  organizations  for 
local  distribution.  There  are  ample  service  facilities  at  this  city. 
Malang  is  an  important  center. 

The  island  of  Bali,  lying  east  of  the  Residency  of  Besoeki,  Java, 
has  a  fairly  well-built  road  system,  skirting  the  north  coast  and 
crossing  the  high  mountains  to  the  east  and  south  coasts.  This 
island  is  dependent  on  Soerabaya  for  distribution  and  all  but  the 
lightest  repairs. 

The  island  of  Lombok  has  a  few  miles  of  fairly  good  roadway. 
Like  Bali  it  is  dependent  on  Soerabaya  for  distribution  and  heavy 
repairs. 

Out  of  Bandjermasin,  in  southern  Borneo,  there  are  a  few  miles 
of  roadway  running  north. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  island  of  Celebes,  radiating  from 
Macassar,  is  a  very  extensive  road  system.  There  are  only  a  few 
plantations,  most  of  the  roads  having  been  built  for  strategic  pur¬ 
poses  primarily.  At  Macassar  are  two  repair  shops,  where  thorough 
overhauling  is  done,  and  they  represent  the  Soerabaya  dealers  as 
subagents. 

Out  of  Menado,  in  the  northern  part  of  Celebes,  are  a  few  miles 
of  standard  roads.  This  subdistrict  is  tributary  to  Soerabaya. 

Sumatra  is  divided  into  three  commercial  units,  not  including  the 
Lampong  district  of  southern  Sumatra,  which,  as  noted  above,  is 
tributary  to  Batavia. 

4.  The  Sumatra  East  Coast  district  is  based  on  Medan,  Sumatra, 
and  includes  the  Residencies  of  Sumatra  East  Coast  and  Atjeh.  It 
has  an  excellent  road  system,  which  reaches  from  the  northernmost 
point  of  the  island  to  Si  Pare  Pare  on  the  south  and  joins  the  road 
from  Sibolga  on  the  west  coast  at  the  summit  of  the  mountain  range. 
Some  of  the  grades  in  the  mountain  districts  are  heavy,  but  for  the 
most  part  they  are  not  especially  so.  Most  of  the  roadways  are 
level  and  are  kept  in  fairly  good  condition.  Plantation  roads,  on 
which  automobiles  are  used,  are  fairly  good. 

Some  of  the  Batavia  automobile  companies  have  branches  in 
Medan,  and  there  are  some  companies  of  local  importance  only. 
Major  repairs  can  be  made,  and  parts  are  carried  for  most  of  the 
makes  represented. 


264  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


5.  The  Sumatra  I Vest  Coast  district  is  based  on  Padang  and  in¬ 
cludes  the  Residencies  of  Sumatra  West  Coast  and  Tapanoeli.  iVhile 
there  is  a  fine  highway  between  Medan  and  Sibolga,  the  mountain 
range  lying  between  is  an  effective  barrier  to  commerce.  Padang  is 
the  general  trade  center  of  the  area  west  of  the  mountains  and  the 
produce  is  moved  on  coastwise  steamers  calling  at  the  numerous 
ports.  A  fine  roadway  extends  from  Sibolga  south  to  Padang  and 
beyond.  In  the  highlands  of  Padang  it  branches  out  into  an  elab¬ 
orate  system  through  a  highly  developed  agricultural  country. 
There  is  considerable  individual  wealth  in  the  district,  not  only  in 
the  hands  of  Europeans  but  of  the  Menangkabou  Malays  as  well. 
One  Dutch  company  in  Padang,  doing  a  general  import  and  export 
business,  represents  several  American  manufacturers  of  automobiles 
and  maintains  an  efficient  service  plant. 

6.  The  P alembang-B enkoelen  district  is  based  on  the  town  of 
Palembang  and  includes  the  Residencies  of  Palembang  and  Ben- 
koelen,  the  Western  Residency  of  Borneo,  and  the  islands  lying  be¬ 
tween.  A  road  is  under  construction  between  Padang  and  Ben- 
koelen  and  is  far  toward  completion,  except  for  bridges.  When  it  is 
completed  Benkoelen  will  probably  be  logically  allied  with  Padang 
in  the  automobile  trade,  but  at  present,  on  account  of  road  connec¬ 
tions  with  Padang,  it  is  within  Palembang’s  sphere  of  influence. 

A  good  road  connects  Palembang,  which  lies  50  miles  inland  from 
the  east  coast,  with  Benkoelen  on  the  west  coast,  and  crosses  a  high 
mountain  range. 

There  is  considerable  wealth  in  the  country,  but  not  in  large 
units.  The  people  are  fairly  prosperous,  especially  in  the  pepper 
districts.  Except  for  the  few  plantations  near  Palembang,  the 
market  would  seem  to  be  for  cheap  American  cars,  the  buyers  being 
Europeans,  Chinese,  and  Arabs. 

An  automobile  dealer  in  Medan  has  opened  up  a  service  station  at 
Palembang,  and  there  are  many  native  or  Chinese-owned  shops  at 
various  centers  in  the  district  where  minor  repairs  may  be  made. 

On  the  islands  of  Banka  and  Billiton  there  are  some  good  roads. 
Such  purchases  as  might  be  made  for  the  private  population  of  these 
islands  would  naturally  be  made  in  Palembang  were  stocks  kept 
there.  The  Western  Residency  of  Borneo  has  a  few  miles  of  road- 
way. 

There  is  no  representation  of  American  automobiles  in  this  dis¬ 
trict  and  purchases  must  be  made  at  Batavia  or  Medan.  Only  two 
local  concerns  are  in  a  position  to  develop  this  trade,  one  of  which 
is  the  largest  importing  and  exporting  house  in  the  colony  of  Java 
and  the  other  an  engineering  company. 

For  The  sale  of  motor  vehicles  British  Malaya  is  divided  into  four 
main  divisions. 

“  A  ”  is  based  on  the  port  and  market  of  Singapore  and  includes 
all  of  the  British  part  of  Borneo,  Johore,  and  the  eastern  watershed 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  except  that  part  of  the  Kuala  Lipis  east- 
coast  road  that  is  near  to  or  west  of  the  railroad.  The  subagency 
point  in  this  division  would  be  Jesselton,  in  British  North  Borneo. 

“B”  is  based  on  Kuala  Lumpur,  the  capital  of  the  Federated 
Malay  States  and  the  market  town  of  the  State  of  Selangor.  Many 
fine  roads  radiate  in  all  directions  from  this  town.  The  subagencv 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


265 


points  are  Seremban,  in  Negri  Sembilan;  Malacca,  in  the  Crown  col¬ 
ony  of  the  same  name,  and  Klang,  in  the  State  of  Selangor. 

{i  C  ”  is  based  on  Ipoh,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Perak.  There 
are  many  good  roads  in  this  area.  The  subagency  points  are  Telok 
Anson  and  Taiping. 

“  D  ”  is  based  on  the  port  and  market  of  Penang  and  includes 
Province  Wellesley  and  the  States  of  Kedah  and  Perlis.  The  sub¬ 
agency  point  in  this  territory  is  Alor  Star,  in  Kedah. 

There  are  about  800  miles  of  metaled  roads  in  the  Straits  Settle¬ 
ments,  2,300  miles  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  and  550  miles  in 
the  Non-Federated  Malay  States.  These  are  made  of  laterite  for  the 
most  part,  but  some  heavier  road  metaling  is  used  in  the  cities  and 
in  parts  of  the  colony  where  better  material  is  available. 

NUMBER  OF  MOTOR  VEHICLES  IN  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

The  following  estimate  of  the  number  of  motor  vehicles  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  at  the  end  of  1918  was  based  on  a  privately 
compiled  register  of  automobiles  licensed  in  the  Netherlands  Indies, 
published  early  in  1919 : 


West  Java  division : 

East  Java  division — Continued. 

Batavia  . 

_  2,000 

Celebes  _ 

O 

Bantam 

65 

Mena  do 

o 

Preanger 

1,227 

South  and  East  Borneo _ 

C) 

Lampong  district 

93 

Ckeribon 

498 

Total 

5,017 

Total  _ 

3,  883 

Sumatra  East  Coast  district : 

Snmiitrfi  Ttlnst  Clnnst 

1  975 

Central  Java  division  : 

9 

Atjeh 

157 

Pekalongan 

556 

Semarang 

1,  679 

Total 

1,  432 

Banjoemas 

255 

Kedoe 

27 

Sumatra  West  Coast  district : 

Djokjakarta 

605 

Sumatra  West  Coast 

264 

Soerakarta 

_  _  510 

Tapanoeli  _  _ 

126 

Total 

_  3,632 

Total 

390 

East  Java  division : 

Palembang-Benkoelen  district : 

Soerabaya 

2,  699 

Palembang 

C) 

Rembang 

287 

Benkoelen 

111 

Mndiopn 

326 

Banka  and  Billiton 

338 

Kediri 

_  C) 

West  Borneo 

63 

Pasoeroean 

1,  018 

Besoeki 

485 

Total 

512 

Mn  doera 

87 

Bali  and  Lombok 

115 

Grand  total 

14,  866 

While  several  residencies  having  roads  (principally  the  Celebes) 
are  not  included  in  this  enumeration,  it  is  sufficiently  accurate  to 
serve  as  a  basis  for  a  rough  estimate  of  15,000  cars  as  the  colony’s 
equipment  at  the  end  of  1918.  Of  these,  10,923  were  imported  since 
1913,  as  follows:  1,328  from  the  Netherlands,  8,126  from  the  United 
States,  293  from  England,  245  from  France,  252  from  Italy,  186 
from  Germany,  313  from  Singapore,  and  180  from  all  other  countries. 

NUMBER  OF  MOTOR  VEHICLES  IN  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

On  February  1,  1921,  the  various  governments  of  British  Malaya 
were  asked  to  furnish  information  as  to  the  total  number  of  motor 


1  Statistics  lacking. 


266 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA 


cars,  motor  trucks,  and  motor  cycles  in  use.  The  following  figures 
are  taken  from  their  replies: 


Division. 

Motor 

cars. 

Motor 

trucks. 

Motor 

cycles. 

Straits  Settlements  (Mar.  15,  1921): 

Singapore . 

3,506 

1,186 

492 

737 

Penang  (including  Providence  Wellesley  and  the  Dindings) . 

63 

415 

Malacca . 

917 

68 

174 

Total . 

5,609 

623 

1,326 

Federated  Malay  States  (Mar.  7, 1921): 

Perak . 

1,598 

82 

459 

Selangor . 

1, 630 

103 

742 

Negri  Sembilan . 

673 

80 

221 

Pahang . 

76 

19 

42 

Total . 

3,977 

284 

1,464 

Trengganoe  (Feb.  13,  1921) . 

10 

1 

3 

Kelantan  (Feb.  20,  1921) . 

48 

4 

23 

Kedah  (Mar.  12, 1921) . 

406 

31 

77 

Brunei  (Feb.  14,  1921) . 

None. 

None. 

None. 

British  North  Borneo  (Mar.  18,  1921) . 

30 

5 

8 

Sarawak  (Mar.  4, 1921) . 

7 

2 

Total . 

501 

43 

111 

In  March,  1921,  there  were  large  stocks  of  American  cars  on  hand 
in  Singapore  and  Penang.  Importers  refused  to  give  the  number 
on  hand,  but  it  is  believed  that  there  were  somewhere  between  700 
and  1,000  vehicles  in  warehouses  at  that  time. 

IMPORTATION  OF  MOTOR  VEHICLES. 

Since  1918  there  have  been  10,877  passenger  cars  and  3,678  trucks 
imported  into  the  Netherlands  Indies,  as  follows :  252  and  256,  re¬ 
spectively,  from  the  Netherlands;  8,082  and  2,446  from  the  United 
States;  127  and  37  from  England;  40  and  4  from  France;  144  and 
6  from  Italy ;  89  and  207  from  Germany ;  198  and  7  from  Singapore ; 
1,807  and  597  from  Canada ;  and  158  and  118  from  all  other  countries. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  motor  vehicles  imported 
into  the  Netherlands  Indies  since  1913  : 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

19211 

Total. 

Netherlands: 

Pa.'.senper  cars . 

576 

477 

144 

117 

14 

14 

71 

167 

)  1,836 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

130 

126 

United  States: 

Passenger  cars . 

251 

240 

357 

2,384 

2,998 

1,701 

2,654 

3,489 

1,939 

751 

)l8,654 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

195 

629 

l'066 

Canada: 

Passen  per  cars . 

65 

679 

1 , 063 

}  2,404 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

21 

99 

'477 

England: 

Passenger  cars . 

95 

111 

65 

17 

5 

3 

76 

48 

}  457 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

4 

33 

(s) 

37 

France: 

Passenger  cars . 

114 

87 

42 

2 

3 

)  289 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

4 

(*) 

97 

Italy: 

Passenger  cars . 

25 

60 

98 

63 

4 

2 

6 

41 

}  402 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

6 

(») 

48 

Germany: 

Passenger  cars . 

106 

80 

41 

}  482 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

55 

152 

Singapore: 

Passenger  cars . 

88 

71 

50 

22 

31 

51 

84 

13 

101 

}  518 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

7 

(*) 

77 

All  other  countries: 

Passenger  cars . 

75 

54 

21 

3 

16 

9 

31 

30 

}  436 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

2 

8 

8 

102 

Total: 

Passenger  cars . 

1,330 

1,  ISO 

777 

2, 608 

3,068 

1,763 

2, 857 

4,443 

3  577 

j-25, 478 

Tractors  and  trucks . 

197 

669 

1,401 

1,608 

1  First  10  months.  1  Included  in  “All  other  countries.” 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


267 


Prior  to  1918  the  customs  returns  showed  the  imports  of  motor 
trucks,  tractors,  and  passenger  cars  under  one  classification;  but  in 
1918  trucks  and  tractors  were  put  into  a  separate  class  and  pas¬ 
senger  cars  were  listed  as  “  automobiles  not  otherwise  specified.’’ 
In  the  table,  therefore,  the  figures  for  passenger  cars  in  the  years 

1913  to  1917,  inclusive,  include  motor  trucks  and  tractors. 

The  preceding  table  shows  the  phenomenal  development  of  the 
trade  since  1913  and  the  part  taken  by  the  United  States.  A  con¬ 
siderable  increase  in  the  imports  from  Canada  is  shown.  The  manu¬ 
facturers  of  Canada  began  to  export  to  this  colony  in  1919,  and  in 
1921  shipped  1,063  passenger  cars  and  477  trucks  and  tractors, 
against  1,939  and  751,  respectively,  from  the  United  States. 

The  larger  number  of  cars  shipped  from  the  United  States  and 
Canada  in  the  early  months  of  1921  were  on  contracts  made  early 
in  1920  and  arrived  on  a  heavily  overstocked  market.  By  Ma}^  these 
contracts  were  filled,  or  canceled  when  possible,  and  the  succeeding 
months  until  August  show  a  shrinkage  of  imports.  The  slight  in¬ 
crease  in  September  and  October  showed  the  arrivals  of  passenger 
cars  on  new  orders,  mostly  of  popular-priced  cars  from  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  European  countries.  The  import  of  trucks  and 
tractors  from  the  United  States  and  Canada  decreased  throughout 
the  period,  but  European  makes  showed  the  slight  revival  of  demand 
after  July. 

In  British  Malaya  most  of  the  imports  of  motor  vehicles  since 

1914  have  been  from  the  United  States,  especially  of  passenger  cars. 
Many  of  the  popular  makes  of  American  cars  are  represented,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  more  expensive  makes,  but  the  bulk  of  the  busi¬ 
ness  is  in  cars  of  cheap  and  medium  price.  In  1920  the  total  im¬ 
ports  of  “  motor  cars,  motor  cycles,  parts,  and  accessories  ”  into  the 
Straits  Settlements  amounted  to  $19,256,906  (Straits  Settlements 
currency),  of  which  $12,633,023  represented  direct'  imports  from  the 
United  States,  $2,898,581  from  the  United  Kingdom,  $1,001,735  from 
Canada,  $598,900  from  Italy,  and  $123,200  from  France.  (Straits 
Settlements  dollar  equals  $0.5678  United  States  currency.) 

MOTOR  CYCLES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  motor  cycles  imported 
into  the  Netherlands  Indies  from  1915  to  1920,  by  countries : 


Countries. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  > 

Netherlands . . . 

81 

61 

52 

4 

15 

50 

Great  Britain . 

54 

49 

21 

50 

14 

62 

France . 

3 

3 

4 

Italy . 

19 

10 

2 

Switzerland . 

18 

United  States . 

68 

339 

842 

497 

658 

949 

Singapore . 

36 

24 

20 

4 

7 

8 

Hongkong . 

3 

Philippines . 

8 

7 

All  otHer  countries . . . 

5 

6 

5 

2 

24 

15 

Total . 

287 

500 

949 

561 

718 

1,084 

Java  and  Madoera . 

205 

466 

903 

559 

680 

1,084 

Outer  Possessions . 

82 

34 

46 

2 

38 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


268  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Before  1915  motor  cycles  and  bicycles  were  classified  in  the  re¬ 
turns  under  the  same  heading. 

Since  1916  the  United  States  has  supplied  most  of  the  motor 
cycles  imported  for  private  use.  In  1919  and  1920  the  Government 
equipped  its  field  police  with  American  motor  cycles  and  side  cars, 
said  to  have  been  taken  over  from  war  supplies,  but  these  do  not 
appear  in  the  returns  as  Government  imports. 

Two  American  motor-cycle  manufacturers  have  the  bulk  of  the 
business,  although  others  are  represented  and  are  doing  some  busi¬ 
ness.  American  motor  cycles  are  recognized  by  users  to  be  in  the  lead 
in  mechanical  efficiency,  and  the  prospect  for  the  further  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  trade  seems  to  be  good. 

There  is  a  large  mileage  of  good  roads,  and  many  of  the  estates 
employing  European  assistants  need  cheap  and  rapid  transportation. 
In  the  cities  the  distances  between  the  residential  sections  and  the 
business  sections  are  long  and  many  of  the  younger  men  use  motor 
cycles.  The  young  Chinese  have  taken  to  this  method  of  travel  to 
some  extent,  partly  for  transportation  and  partly  for  sport,  and 
among  this  class  is  a  large  field  for  growth  in  the  trade. 

Some  of  the  automobile  importers  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  have 
agencies  for  motor  cycles,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  sales  are  made 
by  concerns  specializing  in  these  lighter  vehicles,  and  they  are 
equipped  to  give  quick  and  efficient  service. 

Several  American  motor  cycles  are  represented  in  British  Malaya 
and  they  are  well  regarded  by  users.  The  American  makes  are 
generally  higher  powered  and  more  expensive  than  the  small  British 
machines  that  are  stocked  by  the  British  department  stores.  There 
is  a  good  market  for  these  lighter  types  of  motor  cycles. 

DEALER  ORGANIZATION. 

There  are  several  sales  organizations  doing  business  in  Java.  Two 
of  these  have  salesrooms  and  service  equipment  in  Medan,  Sumatra ; 
several  have  sales  organizations  in  Batavia,  Semarang,  and  Soera- 
baya;  and  others  are  well  equipped  to  handle  sales  in  more  limited 
fields.  Salesmanship,  as  this  term  is  understood  in  the  United  States, 
is  unknown  in  the  colony,  as  the  demand  exceeded  the  supply  up  to 
the  middle  of  1920.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  a  serious  financial 
depression,  with  large  overstocks,  and  greater  effort  has  been  made 
to  effect  sales,  but  there  is  a  lack  of  trained  salesmen.  Small  dealers 
in  the  minor  cities  and  towns  act  as  subagents,  some  of  whom  are 
ambitious  and  are  a  potentially  powerful  means  for  a  more  intensive 
cultivation  of  the  available  markets,  but  they  lack  capital  and  train¬ 
ing  in  salesmanship. 

Two  organizations,  one  English  and  one  Chinese,  have  sales  and 
repair  plants  at  Singapore,  Kuala  Lumpur,  Ipoli,  and  Penang. 
Other  companies  either  confine  their  operations  to  one  city  or  to 
parts  of  the  peninsula.  The  general  importers  are  not  equipped  to 
give  service  or  to  sell  automobiles. 

A  full  analysis  of  the  dealer  organization  is  in  the  Automotive 
Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

CREDITS. 

Few  dealers  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  are  financially  worthy  of 
credit  accommodations,  and  this  has  led  to  the  organization  of  one 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


269 


company,  located  at  Bandoeng,  Java,  to  finance  imports  for  an  or¬ 
ganization  of  many  of  the  small  dealers  and  some  of  the  larger  ones. 

The  Dutch  banks  have  been  unwilling  to  finance  automobile  im¬ 
ports,  and  this  reluctance  has  been  accentuated  by  the  experiences 
of  the  past  two  years.  The  demand  for  cars  up  to  the  middle  of 
1920  led  to  keen  competition  between  the  dealers  for  the  more  popu¬ 
lar  agencies,  and  in  order  to  retain  them  they  contracted  for  more 
cars  than  they  could  expect  to  sell,  thinking  that  the  manufacturers 
would  not  be  able  to  fill  the  orders.  Deliveries  had  been  very  slow, 
and  so  great  was  the  user  demand  that  the  back  orders  and  new 
orders  were  covered  by  credits,  as  required  by  the  manufacturers. 
When  the  manufacturers  filled  all  these  orders  within  a  few  months, 
at  the  same  time  lowering  prices  from  time  to  time,  it  overstocked 
the  market  and  the  dealers  suffered  heavy  losses.  In  order  to  realize 
on  their  stocks  in  the  falling  market,  they  lowered  prices  and  gave 
long  credit  terms  to  buyers.  The  banks  that  opened  the  credits 
had  to  stand  behind  the  dealers  to  protect  themselves,  but  it  is  the 
dealers  who  will  eventually  absorb  the  losses. 

The  dealers  in  British  Malaya,  as  noted  elsewhere,  are  Europeans 
and  Chinese.  The  prevailing  system  of  financing  shipments  from 
the  United  States  has  involved  the  opening  of  credits  in  the  United 
States  against  which  the  manufacturer  drew  when  shipping  was  com¬ 
pleted.  There  are  a  few  concerns  in  British  Malaya  that  would  be 
entitled  to  more  liberal  terms  under  some  circumstances,  but  it  does 
not  seem  necessary  to  extend  credits  under  the  present  conditions  in 
order  to  maintain  the  position  held  by  American  manufacturers. 

ADVERTISING. 

The  newspapers  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  circulate  among  the 
European  population  that  are  buyers  of  automobiles,  but  they  have 
refused  to  run  large  displays  and  generally  take  a  very  arbitrary  atti¬ 
tude  with  regard  to  proofs  of  publication,  payment  in  advance,  and 
proof  reading.  Could  they  be  induced  to  cooperate  in  making  the 
advertisements  effective,  their  publications  would  be  good  mediums. 
Lists  of  publications  and  further  information  are  on  file  in  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  There  are  a  few 
weekly  publications  that  are  good  mediums  for  automobile  advertis¬ 
ing.  The  printing  of  these  papers  is  more  carefully  done.  They 
circulate  among  the  wealthier  classes  and  they  are  more  willing  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  advertisers. 

Poster  advertising  is  effective,  but  lias  greater  limitations  in  this 
colony  than  in  the  United  States.  There  are  no  poster  companies, 
and  while  some  space  on  sides  of  buildings  can  be  bought  from  prop¬ 
erty  owners  most  of  the  posters  are  displayed  in  small  units.  Fre¬ 
quent  heavy  rains  minimize  their  usefulness. 

The  Address  Book  for  Netherlands  Indies  Industries,  printed  in 
Dutch,  contains  a  list  of  all  the  industries,  with  an  indication  of  the 
size  of  the  industry.  Practically  every  European  and  Chinese  fac¬ 
tory  either  owns  an  automobile  now  or  is  a  prospective  buyer.  The 
list  of  187  sugar  estates  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domes¬ 
tic  Commerce  contains  information  about  these  mills.  Each  mill  has 
an  automobile  and  is  a  prospect  for  a. new  one.  The  list  of  some  700 
rubber  and  coffee  estates,  also  on  file  in  the  bureau,  is  a  valuable 


270  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


mailing  list.  Each  one  of  these  estates  has  a  manager  and  most  of 
them  have  two  or  more  assistant  managers,  all  of  whom  are  possible 
purchasers  of  cars. 

Direct  advertising,  if  it  is  connected  up  with  the  local  distributer, 
should  be  effective  if  printed  in  the  language  the  receiver  can  read. 
For  the  European  trade  Dutch  is  the  best  language  to  use,  but  the 
Chinese  can  best  be  reached  through  the  Malay  language  Romanized. 

Daily  and  weekly  publications  can  most  effectively  be  used  through 
the  local  representatives.  Poster  advertising  can  only  be  done  by 
local  dealers.  Direct  advertising  is  more  effective  through  the  local 
dealer  if  his  active  cooperation  can  be  enlisted. 

Correct  translations  are  essential.  Dutch  translations  made  in 
the  Netherlands  are  liable  to  be  unsuited  for  colonial  use.  Trans¬ 
lations  into  Malay  for  the  Chinese  trade  can  only  be  made  in  the 
colony,  as  many  of  the  words  of  this  language  are  different  from 
the  Malay  of  the  Straits  Settlements. 

The  newspapers  in  British  Malaya  reach  all  of  the  population  who 
are  in  a  position  to  buy  automobiles.  Besides  those  published  in 
English  there  are  papers  in  Chinese  and  Malay,  some  of  which  are 
important  mediums  for  reaching  this  trade.  The  more  important 
people  are  well  classified  in  directories  and  other  lists,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  make  up  mailing  lists  that  include  practically  all  of  the 
prosperous  Europeans  and  Chinese.  There  are  no  publications  de¬ 
voted  exclusively  to  the  motorist,  but  several  London  publications 
of  this  class  circulate  freely  among  the  English  population.  Publi¬ 
cations  devoted  to  the  rubber  and  tin  industries  provide  a  convenient 
channel  through  which  to  reach  the  buying  public. 

AMERICAN  SALES  ORGANIZATION. 

One  American  manufacturer  maintains  an  organization  in  Singa¬ 
pore  to  take  care  of  the  dealer  trade  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  and 
British  Malaya,  and  other  manufacturers  send  men  into  the  field 
occasionally  to  make  new  contracts.  The  favorable  position  that 
American  cars  hold  in  the  colony  is  due,  as  stated  before,  to  their 
structural  and  mechanical  efficiencv.  The  trade  has  not  been  culti- 
vated,  but  has  been  forced  to  make  contracts  beyond  its  ability  to 
sell.  The  dealers  made  these  contracts  in  fear  of  the  agencies  being 
taken  away  and  with  the  expectation  (and  in  some  cases  the  verbal 
understanding)  that  they  would  not  be  required  to  fulfill  them. 
The  sudden  influx  of  cars  in  1920  and  1921  is  greatly  to  be  deplored, 
as  it  weakened  the  dealers  financially. 

Financially  strong  dealers  are  necessary  to  effective  sales  develop¬ 
ment,  and  any  policy  that  tends  to  weaken  the  dealers  will  weaken 
their  ability  to  give  service  to  owners.  With  over  25,000  automo¬ 
biles  in  the  colony,  most  of  which  are  of  American  make,  the  main 
factor  for  American  manufacturers  to  consider  is  owner  service. 
If  the  users  are  satisfied  with  American  cars  the  dealers  will  have 
to  stock  them.  Service  to  the  user  is  very  inadequate  at  present. 
Repair  stations  equipped  to  make  quick  and  satisfactory  repairs, 
including  reboring  and  rabbeting,  running  in  and  burning  in,  car¬ 
bon  removing,  and  complete  electric  ignition  service,  are  still  to  be 
installed,  and  it  is  for  the  American  manufacturers  to  take  the 
initiative  that  will  put  the  service  on  a  satisfactory  basis.  Price 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


271 


regulation,  especially  of  parts,  is  another  phase  of  service  that 
will  have  to  be  considered.  This  development  will  be  through  the 
dealer,  and  in  the  long  run  he  will  profit  by  it,  but  it  will  mean  an 
initial  outlay  on  his  part  and  the  loss  of  some  immediate  profits. 
He  is  entitled  to  the  same  protection  as  the  dealer  in  the  United 
States,  and  he  should  not  be  required  to  contract  for  more  cars  than 
his  market  will  absorb.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  supplied 
with  cars  as  fast  as  he  can  sell  them  and  be  required  to  develop  a 
sales  organization  that  will  give  the  maximum  turnover. 

THE  TIRE  TRADE. 

A  British  company  manufacturing  tires  in  J apan  has  held  the  most 
prominent  place  in  the  trade,  both  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  and 
British  Malaya,  for  many  years.  This  company’s  product  is  sold  on 
a  price  basis,  and  both  casings  and  inner  tubes  can  be  bought  at  all 
times  in  practically  every  town  where  gasoline  is  sold,  often  from 
the  gasoline  dealer. 

A  French  company  has  been  catering  to  the  trade  of  both  colonies 
since  the  pre-war  years  and  has  a  strong  hold  on  one  section  of  the 
trade.  This  company  has  put  a  beaded  tire  on  the  market,  called 
the  “  Cable.”  This  is  said  to  be  sold  as  a  cord  tire,  but  is  not 
advertised  as  such.  It  has  found  a  place  in  the  trade  in  competition 
with  cord  tires. 

An  Italian  company  has  put  a  tire  on  the  market  that  is  command¬ 
ing  some  trade  in  both  colonies. 

A  tire  from  Japan  called  the  “  Tokyo  ”  has  been  put  on  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  market  at  a  price  slightly  below  that  of  the  British- Jap¬ 
anese  tire  mentioned  above.  There  has  been  considerable  specula¬ 
tion  as  to  what  factory  is  the  manufacturer  of  this  tire. 

Straight-side  tires  have  found  favor  with  buyers  during  the  last 
two  years.  Most  of  the  American  automobiles  imported  during  that 
period  have  been  fitted  with  straight-side  rims,  and  the  importers 
of  tires  from  America  contend  that  it  is  in  the  interest  of  car  own¬ 
ers  that  all  American  automobiles  shipped  to  this  market  should  be 
fitted  with  straight-side  wheel  equipment,  and  when  the  customer 
insists  on  rims  fitted  for  beaded  tires  reversible  or  universal  rings 
should  be  supplied. 

Several  American  companies  are  in  the  market,  two  of  them  main¬ 
taining  a  selling  organization  in  Java.  American  tires  are  well 
known  on  the  market,  and  even  with  the  exchange  rates  strongly 
against  them  they  have  maintained  a  place  in  the  trade  through  hon¬ 
est  manufacturing  methods  and  a  wise  selling  policy. 

IMPORTS  OF  TIRES. 

Imports  of  tires  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  from  1917  to 
1921,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table.  These  tires 
were  valued  by  the  customs  in  1917  at  27  florins;  in  1918,  at  32.95 
florins;  in  1919,  at  37.11  florins;  and  in  1920  (for  Java  and  Madoera 
only)  at  the  declared  value  (1  florin  =  $0,402  mint  par  U.  S.). 


272  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Countries. 


Netherlands . 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

France . 

Italy . 

Singapore  and  Penang 

Japan . 

Australia . 

Canada . 

All  other . 

Total . 


1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

19211 

Number. 
1,575 
48, 438 
12, 131 

80 

29, 552 
1, 306 
8,418 
23, 923 
2,627 

Number. 

42 
27, 281 
13, 424 
230 
9, 879 

Number. 
507 
57, 127 
5,667 

Number. 
6,999 
86, 749 
10,649 
5, 987 
30, 953 
13, 687 
10, 195 
78, 114 
1,018 
1, 992 
1,485 

Number. 
8,801 
32, 810 
5,383 
11,597 
69,524 
5,687 
10,934 
67, 400 
4,087 
1,325 
3, 571 

43, 984 
3, 041 
8, 115 
100,213 
3, 486 
2, 257 
481 

7,212 
53, 098 
2,200 

168 

38 

128, 278 

113,404 

224, 878 

247,828 

221, 119 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  shrinkage  in  the  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1921  was 
due  to  the  rise  in  the  value  of  the  dollar.  It  will  be  noted  that  Ger¬ 
many  is  again  a  factor  in  this  trade  and  France  more  than  doubled 
its  business  over  1920. 

Imports  of  tires  into  the  Straits  Settlements  from  1917  to  1920, 
by  countries,  were  as  follows,  values  being  in  Straits  dollars  (1 
Straits  dollar=$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.)  : 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

United  States  . 

Straits 
dollars. 
116,714 
392,822 
1,200 
80, 600 
445, 140 
354, 946 
243, 063 

Straits 
dollars. 
915, 046 
512, 215 

Straits 

dollars. 

1, 327, 480 
187, 413 
96,540 
24, 170 

”"861, 830' 
665, 941 
81, 000 
222, 600 
249, 126 

Straits 

dollars. 

1, 948, 509 
435, 386 
30, 009 
100, 661 
337, 000 
1, 256,  340 
1, 332, 735 
278, 500 

TTnitp.d  Kingdom . 

Hongkong  . 

Australia . 

24, 980 
272,880 
137, 740 
547, 183 

France  ..  _ _  -  -  - _  _  _ _ _ 

Italy . 

Japan  . 

Canada  . 

Netherlands . 

All  other  . 

48, 360 

50, 645 

290, 821 

Total  . . . . . . . . 

1,682,845 

2, 460, 689 

3, 716, 100 

6, 009, 952 

% 


STANDARD  SIZES  OF  TIRES. 

The  following  sizes  of  passenger-car  tires  are  considered  as  stand¬ 
ard  in  the  British  Malaya  automobile  trade,  those  sizes  marked  with 
an  asterisk  rapidly  becoming  obsolete : 

Clincher  tires. — Sizes  in  millimeters:  760  by  90,  810  by  90,  765  by  105,  815 
by  105,  875  by  105,  815  by  120,  820  by  120,  880  by  120,  920  by  120,  880  by  135, 
S95  by  135,  935  by  135,  895  by  150,  and  935  by  150.  Sizes  in  inches:  30  by  3*, 
30  by  Si,  and  31  by  4. 

Straight- side  tires. — Sizes  in  indies:  32  by  3^,  32  by  4,  33  by  4,  34  by  4*, 
32  by  4i,  33  by  4*,  34  by  41,  35  by  4i,  36  by  41*,  33  by  5,  35  by  5*,  and  37  by  5*. 

Nearly  90  per  cent  of  the  cars  imported  from  the  United  States 
are  fitted  with  straight-side  rims,  which  have  rapidly  come  into 
favor,  and  the  trade  is  of  the  opinion  that  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  the  straight-side  tires  will  predominate.  A  number  of  Euro¬ 
pean  cars  are  fitted  with  straight-side  rims. 

Motor-cycle  tires. — Sizes  in  inches :  26  by  2i,  26  by  2\,  28  by  3,  and  29  by  3$. 

Solid  tires  for  trucks. — Sizes  in  inches:  32  by  3,  36  by  3,  32  by  3£,  34  by  31, 
36  by  3^,  32  by  4,  34  by  4,  36  by  4,  34  by  5,  36  by  5,  40  by  5,  36  by  6,  40  by  6, 
36  by  7,  36  by  8,  and  36  by  10. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


273 


Motor-truck  tires  are  used  in  both  the  pressed-on  and  hand-attach¬ 
able  types. 

An  American  representative  of  an  American  tire  manufacturer  is 
credited  with  the  following  statement  regarding  the  sizes  of  tires 
used  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies: 

Practically  all  sizes  of  tires,  in  both  inch  and  metric  measurements,  are  used 
in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  the  inch  sizes  being  used  principally  on  Ameri¬ 
can  cars,  while  metric  sizes  are  used  on  European  cars.  *  *  *  There  has 

been,  and  still  is,  considerable  prejudice  against  the  straight-side  tire,  although 
in  my  opinion  it  is  going  to  be  the  most  popular  tire  as  the  motorist  gets 
used  to  it. 

FOODSTUFFS. 

MILK. 

The  greater  part  of  the  consumption  of  condensed  milk  is  by 
Chinese  and  natives  and  of  sterilized  milk  by  the  Dutch  and  the 
better  class  of  Chinese.  The  evaporated  milk  which  has  found  a  good 
sale  in  the  trade  with  the  foreign  population  and  better  class  of 
Chinese  along  the  China  coast  has  been  found  to  be  unsuited  to  this 
country  because  of  the  fact  that  the  foreign  population  is  negligible  as 
compared  with  the  native  buyers  and  for  the  further  reason  that  the 
package  is  so  large  that  it  can  not  be  used  immediately  when  opened, 
and  the  milk  sours  in  a  few  hours  in  the  Tropics.  The  sterilized 
milk,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  immediately  the  can  is  opened  with¬ 
out  the  addition  of  water,  of  which  there  is  very  little  in  the  islands 
fit  to  drink  without  boiling.  Packers  would  do  well  to  adapt  them¬ 
selves  to  this  market  in  this  particular  and  not  complicate  their 
already  difficult  sales  problem  by  trying  to  sell  a  product  that  the 
trade  is  not  used  to. 

CANNED  MILK. 

Before  the  war  the  principal  purveyors  to  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  market  were  the  Nestle’s  Anglo- Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Co. 
(Ltd.),  selling  under  many  brands  but  pushing  their  Milkmaid  brand 
(“  Chap  Nonna,”  as  it  is  called  in  the  Netherlands  Indies)  to  the 
fore,  and  the  Burnese  Alps  Milk  Co.,  selling  under  the  Bear  brand. 
The  former  is  a  British  company,  but  originated  in  Switzerland,  and 
the  latter  is  a  purely  Swiss  company.  Other  companies  had  been  in 
the  field,  but  the  British  company’s  vigorous  competition  made  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  brand  a  very  costly  operation, 
and  the  Burnese  Alps  Milk  Co.  was  only  able  to  maintain  its  position 
because  of  the  long  standing  of  its  brand  in  the  market,  which  identi¬ 
fied  it  to  the  consumers,  who  demanded  Bear  brand  even  at  higher 
prices  than  the  competing  brands  brought. 

The  Nestle’s  Anglo-Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Co.  (Ltd.)  is  a  very 
large  concern,  and  its  operations  in  all  the  oriental  countries  of  the 
Far  East  give  the  impression  that  its  intention  is  to  drive  out  compe¬ 
tition  or  buy  it  up.  It  has  organized  the  sources  of  supply  in  Europe, 
the  United  States,  South  Africa,  and  Australia  so  thoroughly  that 
it  can  take  every  advantage  in  freight  rates,  and,  being  one  of  the 
largest  shippers  of  inward  cargo,  it  is  catered  to  by  the  shipping  com¬ 
panies.  Its  sales  and  distributing  organizations  cover  the  Orient 
thoroughly,  and  it  is  able  to  provide  against  shortages  or  to  quickly 


274  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


cover  them  when  they  occur,  and  to  make  the  most  of  such  shortages 
on  the  part  of  competitors. 

While  large  shipments  come  to  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  nomi¬ 
nally  from  the  Netherlands,  most  of  it  is,  in  fact,  from  the  near-by 
European  countries  and  is  loaded  at  Dutch  ports.  Other  shipments 
are  concentrated  at  Southampton,  where  the  Dutch  lines  call  on  their 
outward  voyages.  What  small  part  American  milk  played  in  the 
trade  between  1912  and  1916  was  through  shipments  brought  in  from 
Singapore,  but  much  of  the  milk  credited  to  that  port  was  of  stock 
requisitioned  from  the  reserves  the  Nestle’s  Co.  held  there. 

Some  milk  comes  from  Australia  from  factories  not  controlled  by 
the  Nestle’s  Co.,  more  especially  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  but 
not  enough  to  cut  seriously  into  what  was  practically  a  monopoly  of 
the  market  by  that  company.  Being  a  Swiss  company,  the  Bumese 
Alps  Milk  Co.  has  been  practically  out  of  the  market  since  the  early 
days  of  the  war,  but  they  have  retained  their  connection  with  their 
distributer  and  are  again  in  the  market. 

According  to  a  statement  made  by  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
manager  of  the  Nestle’s  Co.  in  1920,  that  company  has  acquired  a 
large  number  of  creameries  in  the  United  States  and  proposes  to 
supply  such  markets  from  there  as  have  favorable  freight  rates  and 
deliveries. 

Some  American  brands  are  on  the  market,  but  the  trade  is  small, 
and  they  are  not  being  pushed  vigorously. 

Three  kinds  of  milk  have  been  imported  into  this  market — con¬ 
densed,  sterilized,  and  evaporated — but  the  latter  in  such  small  quan¬ 
tities  that  it  is  not  worthy  of  consideration  in  a  discussion  of  import 
figures. 

CONDENSED  MILK. 

In  1913,  1914,  1915,  and  1916  condensed  milk  was  valued  at  40 
florin  cents  per  kilo,  in  1917  at  53  cents,  in  1918  at  68  cents,  and  in 
1919  and  1920  at  1.15  florins.  The  standard  can  of  condensed  milk 
is  14  ounces  net  weight,  which  would  give  a  net  weight  per  case  of 
48  tins  of  19.05077  kilos. 

Following  are  importations  of  condensed  milk  into  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  by  countries,  during  the  period  1913-1919,  the  total 
importations  into  Java  and  Madoera  only  for  1920  being  3,378,794 
kilos,  and  for  the  first  11  months  of  1921,  4,338,000  kilos: 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 
33,292 
11, 468 

1,  290,  299 
261,  749 

25,874 
32, 782 

Kilos. 
582, 756 
57,907 

64,  817 
88,131 

Kilos. 
677, 185 
102, 911 

Kilos. 

1,185,922 

66,094 

140,140 

66,173 

Outer  Possessions . 

Netherlands: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

805,311 
991, 835 

44,325 

109,845 

157,  555 
20,005 

766,  446 
47, 171 

274,  553 
234, 378 

569, 713 
836, 738 

43, 657 
81,  885 

162,  491 
10, 347 

430, 960 
39, 967 

585,964 
274, 001 

497,  476 
851,  892 

6,972 
32, 713 

Outer  Possessions . 

6,885 

8,016 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

8,263 

Germany: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

• 

Outer  Possessions . 

8,024 

321, 285 
94,498 

955,  217 
255,  284 

Italy: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

40,913 
14,  221 

745,  536 
81,833 

Outer  Possessions . 

Switzerland: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

12,000 

19,053 

Outer  Possessions . 

4,694 

IMPORT  COMMODITIES, 


275 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

France: 

Outer  Possessions . 

Kilos. 

9,409 

Kilos. 

7,986 

Kilos. 

8,343 

2,550 

34, 130 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Denmark: 

Outer  Possessions . 

Norway: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Canada: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

29,000 

885, 120 
43, 921 

29,000 

425, 822 
208, 676 

Australia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

31, 522 

25, 520 

2,608 
*  1, 978 

6,649 

1, 496, 689 
112,090 

British  India: 

Outer  Possessions . 

4,968 

14,026 

China: 

Outer  Possessions . 

24,480 

Sweden: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

600 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

28, 017 
24, 564 

30, 370 
28, 634 

52, 785 
35,272 

47,000 

78, 343 
461,  812 

88, 135 

214, 097 
5,500 

99,174 
23, 025 

64, 463 
5,953 

Outer  Possessions . 

Philippines: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Singapore: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Penang: 

Outer  Possessions . 

Hongkong: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

495, 127 
373,  315 

98, 336 

727,  465 
455, 322 

93, 117 

570, 890 
330, 823 

41, 437 

402, 972 

1,  035, 762 

117,653 

44, 958 
14, 102 

428 

36,063 

96,411 

894,092 

108, 178 

475,03a 

50,326 

316 
6, 483 

211,  446 
1, 025, 902 

56, 383 

215, 598 

Outer  Possessions . 

All  other: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Total . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

2,244 
43,  291 

15, 352 
58, 939 

7,210 
54, 307 

881 

10,  010 

4,  505,  268 

4,419,424  4,077,637 

4, 268, 129 

3,  497,  028 

2,  568,  332 

4, 666, 007 

2,  577,  683 
1, 927,  585 

2, 561, 122 
1,  858, 302 

2, 395, 788 
1, 681,  849 

2,  618, 938 
1, 649, 191 

2, 175,  823 
1, 321, 205 

1, 631,  422 
936, 910 

3, 315, 139 
1, 350,  868 

STERILIZED  MILK. 


The  imports  of  sterilized  milk  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
from  1918  to  1919,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  appended  table. 
In  1913  and  1914  the  Customs  Division  fixed  a  uniform  price  for 
computing  values  at  30  florin  cents,  in  1915  and  1916  at  32  cents, 
in  1917  at  38  cents,  in  1918  at  45  cents,  in  1919  at  58  cents,  and  in 

1920  at'  66  cents  per  liter.  The  net  contents  of  a  can  is  0.42  liter,  or 
20.16  liters  to  the  case  of  48  cans.  Imports  into  Java  and  Madoera 
only  were  1,314,292  liters  for  1920,  while  for  the  first  11  months  of 

1921  the  total  was  2,828,000  liters. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Liters. 

Liters. 

Liters. 

Liters. 
28, 726 

Liters. 

116,079 

17,521 

619, 138 
178, 784 

24, 720 

Liters. 
344,894 
57, 875 

56, 856 
33,365 

Liters. 
677,616 
128, 446 

357,915 

78,339 

18,000 

Outer  Possessions . 

Netherlands: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

519,207 
251, 108 

17,820 

19,947 

518,061 

142,327 

2,400 

369,414 

662,093 
293, 220 

1,000,411 
447, 162 

1,943,953 

439,309 

28, 692 
15,445 

Outer  Possessions . 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

29, 147 

597, 976 
124,309 

30,237 

35,328 

18,986 

Germany: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

Belgium: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Italy: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

822,931 
35, 898 

203, 976 
130, 571 

310,577 
50, 356 

983,684 

119.912 

171,376 

44,563 

718, 817 
69,784 

24,911 

19,944 

405,263 

14, 114 

55,200 

4,800 

129, 320 
9, 5.0 

Outer  Possessions . 

4,778 

93, 756 

Switzerland: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

32, 580 
56,367 

Out*-  Possessions . 

19878°— 23 - 19 


276  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MAL.AYA. 


Countries. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

France: 

Outer  Possessions . 

Liters. 

25,498 

Liters. 
42, 408 

Liters. 

15,836 

Liters. 

Liters. 

19,377 

9,600 

Liters. 

9,960 

Liters. 

1,776 

Denmark: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

23,856 

9,045 

29, 040 

4,776 
20, 993 

Outer  Possessions . 

Norway  and  Sweden: 

and  Madoera.. . 

26,400 

7,200 

4,768 

Canada: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions . 

* 

Australia: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

10, 720 

26,020 

2,373 

64,378 

20,966 

22,923 
26, 190 

4,800 

64,100 

18,705 

Outer  Possessions . 

British  India: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

15,696 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

39, 240 

107,448 
144, 140 

8,237 

91,040 

720 

Singapore: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

36,954 

37,941 

35,986 

240 

152, 688 
59, 229 

30,320 

590,363 

70,214 

3,197 

303, 396 

214, 194 

11,123 

200,118 

100,575 

8,023 

43,200 

117,633 

80,030 

10, 133 

19,535 
6, 480 

1,044 

96 

Outer  Possessions . 

Penang: 

Outer  Possessions . 

Hongkong: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Outer  Possessions _ 

China: 

Outer  Possessions . 

All  other: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

7,836 

13,640 

6,669 

9,849 

3,024 
37, 761 

2,031 
35, 153 

1,746 

22,697 

6,  111 

10, 556 

Outer  Possessions . 

Total . 

2,098,046 

3,227,304 

3,735, 117 

4,114,272 

1,944,034 

895, 836 

1,951,285 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

1,515,232 
582, 814 

2,472,353 

754,951 

2,941,456 
793, 661 

3, 254,663 
859, 609 

1,535,553 
408, 481 

672,461 

223,375 

1, 545, 990 
405, 295 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

As  Singapore  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  Penang  are  depots  for  the 
distribution  of  milk  to  surrounding  countries,  the  imports  into  the 
Straits  Settlements  are  not  indicative  of  the  consumption  within 
British  Malaya.  The  larger  part  of  the  milk  business  is  done  by 
the  Nestle’s  Anglo- Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  although  some  Ameri¬ 
can  brands  are  on  the  market. 


CANNED  MEATS. 

Imports  of  canned  meats  (not  including  pork)  into  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  for  1918  and  1919  and  into  Java  and  Madoera  only 
for  1920  and  1921,  by  countries,  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Countries. 

Whole  colony. 

Java  and  Madoera  only. 

• 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

United  States . 

Metric  tons . 
65 

Metric  tons. 
127 

Metric  tons. 
174 

Metric  tons. 

87 

Netherlands . 

32 

161 

327 

250 

France . 

2 

7 

12 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

34 

39 

14 

6 

Hongkong  and  China7 . 

47 

41 

42 

93 

Australia . 

60 

119 

182 

141 

All  other . 

9 

9 

18 

13 

Total . 

249 

496 

764 

602 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

187 

401 

764 

602 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

62 

95 

Since  the  population  consists  mainly  of  rice  eaters,  the  meat  trade 
is  confined  largely  to  Europeans  and  the  better  class  of  Chinese.  A 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


277 


considerable  part  of  the  imports,  as  shown  in  the  table,  comes  from 
the  Netherlands;  Australia  is  second  and  the  United  States  third. 

American  packers  are  not  handling  this  trade  vigorously.  A  care¬ 
fully  planned  advertising  and  sales  campaign  would  undoubtedly 
increase  the  volume  of  sales. 

Corned  beef  is  the  principal  article  of  import,  and  considerable 
quantities  of  a  rather  poor  pack  come  from  Australia.  American 
corned  beef  is  a  staple  on  the  market  and  is  considered  by  the  trade 
as  the  first  quality  imported. 

Other  canned  meat  products  stocked  are  lunch  tongue,  sausages, 
and  chicken  (pressed  and  potted),  besides  pork  products. 

As  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  the  trade  of  British  Malaya  in 
canned  meats  is  principally  with  the  European  population  and  is 
therefore  not  large.  American  packers  are  supplying  a  large  part 
of  this  trade,  and  some  Australian  meats  are  on  the  market,  especially 
corned  beef. 

CANNED  VEGETABLES. 

The  statistics  given  out  by  the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  covering  canned  vegetables  include  also  dried  vegetables  and 
beans,  of  which  there  are  large  importations  from  China,  British 
Malaya,  and'  other  near-by  countries.  There  is  little  definite  value 
in  the  figures,  except  as  they  are  taken  in  conjunction  with  other 
known  facts,  but  some  idea  of  trends  may  be  gained  from  them  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  surrounding  Asiatic  countries  are  not  pack¬ 
ers  of  canned  vegetables,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  there  are  no 
shipments  of  beans  or  dried  vegetables  of  any  consequence  from 
Europe  or  the  United  States  and  but  little  from  Australia.  Values 
only  are  given,  and  these  are  arrived  at  by  the  usual  arbitrary 
method  of  fixing  a  price  of  so  many  cents  per  unit  regardless  of 
whether  they  are  carrots,  small  peas,  or  asparagus. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  in  florins  of  canned  vegetable 
imports,  by  countries,  for  the  whole  colony  in  1918  and  1919  and  for 
Java  and  Madoera  only  in  1920  (1  florinr=$0.402  mint'  par  U.  S.)  : 


.  Countries. 

« 

1918 

1919 

1920» 

United  States . 

Florins. 
168. 720 
74, 495 
1,196 

Florins. 
238, 230 
693,722 
1,666 
10, 821 

Florins. 

154,817 

912,766 

6,247 

18,810 

4,015 

1,426 

10,563 

623,486 

Netherlands . 

France . 

Great  Britain . 

Belgium . 

Switzerland . 

British  India . 

29, 159 
723, 324 
141,386 
255,215 
28,325 
50,904 
99,526 
10,809 

13,485 
599, 146 
114,586 
154,425 
12,203 
33,059 
85,584 
27,990 

Singapore . 

Penang . 

Hongkong . 

202,722 

13,570 

12,918 

70,611 

13,402 

China . . . 

Japan . 

Australia . 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,583, 059 

1,984,917 

2,045,353 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

945,677 

637,382 

1,278,000 

706,917 

2,045,353 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


This  table  shows  the  highly  disorganized  condition  of  the  trade  in 
1918  and  the  reversion  somewhat  to  pre-war  distribution  on  the  re- 


278  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

turn  of  shipping  to  normal  routings.  Large  stocks  of  Dutch  canned 
vegetables  arrived  in  the  colony  early  in  1919,  and  the  following  year 
showed  a  large  increase  in  imports  from  the  Netherlands  and  a  de¬ 
crease  in  imports  from  the  United  States. 

This  colony  before  the  war  was  supplied  with  canned  vegetables 
from  the  Netherlands,  Tieleman  &  Dros  being  the  principal  packers 
for  this  market,  and  their  name  was  a  household  one  in  Java.  The 
agency  for  their  line  is  highly  valued  by  the  firms  holding  it  and 
those  firms  are  in  every  case  of  the  highest  standing  in  their  business 
communities. 

Asparagus. — Before  the  war  America  divided  with  the  Netherlands 
the  trade  in  asparagus,  and  the  American  product  was  better  in 
quality,  packing,  and  general  appearance  than  the  Dutch.  The  first 
and  second  grades  of  American  asparagus  are  generally  conceded  to  be 
superior  to  any  other  offered  on  the  market.  There  have  been  some  very 
fair  brands  coming  from  Australia  which  have  been  well  received  in 
the  Batavia  market,  but  these  are  not  comparable  with  the  firsts  or 
even  the  seconds  of  the  American  pack.  There  is  a  good  demand  for 
small  quantities  of  this  Australian  product,  but  a  walk  through  the 
market  streets  of  any  of  the  larger  towns  will  show  that  the  American 
canners  are  far  in  the  lead.  This  should  not,  however,  lead  them  to 
think  that  they  will  not  need  to  use  every  effort  to  keep  this  trade, 
as  representatives  of  the  Australian  canners  are  constantly  in  the 
field  and  are  developing  quite  a  trade  in  the  cheaper  grades.  Austra¬ 
lian  asparagus  is  served  m  most  of  the  hotels.  This  is  the  one  vege¬ 
table  in  which  America  seems  to  have  a  good  chance  to  retain  its 
preeminent  position,  but  the  small  points  should  be  watched,  and, 
among  other  things,  the  market  for  the  lower  grades  should  be  culti¬ 
vated. 

Peas. — There  is  a  larger  market  for  peas  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  than  for  any  other  vegetable.  It  is  a  favorite  of  the  Holland¬ 
ers,  and  the  Dutch  packers  before  the  war  put  up  a  small,  highly 
colored  pea  that  was  the  standard  for  first  quality  in  the  minds  of 
the  local  importers  and  jobbers.  With  this  standard  in  mind  there  are 
many  criticisms  of  the  American  product,  among  which  are  that  the 
color  should  be  a  darker  green,  that  the  peas  should  be  picked  when 
younger,  they  are  not  tender,  are  two  sweet,  etc.,  but  from  all  the 
criticism,  which  is  apparently  not  without  a  very  natural  prejudice 
in  favor  of  the  Dutch  pack,  it  may  be  deduced  that  there  is,  perhaps, 
not  a  clear  enough  line  drawn  between  the  grades  of  the  American 
pack.  Australia  and  Japan  have  an  advantage  in  freight  rates  over 
the  California  product,  and  their  competition  should  be  carefully 
watched.  Evenness  of  quality  in  the  lower  grades  and  the  very  best 
American  quality  in  the  No.  1  grade,  combined  with  a  close  study  of 
the  market  and  a  quickness  to  take  advantage  of  the  peculiar  position 
America  holds,  should  gain  a  good  share  of  this  trade  for  the  United 
States. 

Com. — This  vegetable  is  little  known  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  ex¬ 
cept  as  a  food  for  natives,  and  the  poor  quality  of  field  corn  grown 
in  the  colony  has  nothing  to  recommend  it  to  the  better  class  of  trade 
which  constitutes  the  market  for  canned  vegetables  and  fruit.  Sweet 
corn  is  known  only  to  those  few  people  wTho  have  traveled  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  British  colonies,  and  a  demand  for  canned 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


279 


com  is  practically  nonexistent.  To  develop  a  market  would  require 
an  advertising  campaign  which  might  not  give  a  return  on  the  in¬ 
vestment  for  many  years.  American  salesmen  in  the  field  watching 
the  trade  carefully  for  an  opening  for  their  products  may  find  op¬ 
portunities  to  get  this  line  on  the  market  through  the  cooperation 
of  the  shopkeepers. 

Tomatoes. — The  importers  are  very  insistent  in  their  statement 
that  there  is  no  market  for  canned  tomatoes  here.  There  is  a  small 
and  very  inferior  tomato  grown  in  almost  every  part  of  this  archi¬ 
pelago,  and  it  is  argued  that  the  requirements  are  amply  supplied  by 
this  native  product. 

Hominy  and  succotash  are  not  known  on  this  market. 

Sauerkraut. — The  American  sauerkraut  is  well  received  and  con¬ 
siderable  quantities  are  imported.  It  is  said  to  be  equal  to,  if  not 
better,  than  the  European  product. 

Cauliflower. — There  is  a  small  demand  for  cauliflower,  but  the 
American  product,  it  is  claimed,  has  not  proven  to  be  satisfactory. 
It  arrived  in  a  soft  condition  and  it  was  unsalable,  according  to  one 
importer,  while  another  one  said  his  experience  was  that  it  arrived 
in  good  condition  but  was  inferior  to  the  Dutch  product. 

Beets . — There  is  only  a  small  demand  for  beets,  on  account  of 
local  production.  Such  trial  orders  as  have  been  placed  did  not 
result  in  repeat  orders. 

Carrots. — The  European  packers  put  up  a  small  French  carrot 
in  cans  which  is  very  popular,  and  the  importers  are  unanimous  in 
the  opinion  that  the  sliced  carrots  which  have  been  put  on  this 
market  by  the  American  packers  are  not  suited  to  the  requirements. 

String  beans. — There  is  but  a  small  demand  for  string  beans,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  importers,  and  that  is  for  the  European  product. 
They  claim  that  the  American  beans  are  too  large  and  not  tender. 
.Nevertheless,  the  American  product  is  on  the  market  and  selling, 
though  slowly.  Care  should  be  taken  in  the  quality  sent  out  under 
the  first-grade  brands,  and  a  study  of  the  various  inferior  qualities 
may  show  opportunities  for  marketing  qualities  not  salable  in  the 
American  market. 

Beans  with  pork. — There  is  a  popular  Dutch  dish  of  pork  and 
beans  that  is  somewhat  different  from  the  American  product.  Some 
of  this  stock  is  on  the  market  and  also  some  of  the  more  popular 
American  brands,  but  the  sale  of  this  product  is  not  large. 

Brussels  sprouts. — There  is  apparently  only  one  American  packer 
who  has  put  Brussels  sprouts  on  this  market,  and  this  shipment  is 
said  to  be  inferior  to  the  Dutch  pack. 

The  Dutch  canners  (Tieleman  &  Dros)  are  in  a  very  strong  po¬ 
sition  with  the  trade,  their  method  being  to  place  their  agencies  with 
leading  houses  in  the  various  major  market  cities,  one  house  having 
the  exclusive  sale  in  each  district  on  the  condition  that  these  houses 
will  not  handle  competitive  lines  in  other  parts  of  the  colony.  With¬ 
out  vigorous  competition  this  system  has  worked  greatly  to  their 
advantage,  but  with  vigorous  competition  their  position  is  weak. 
A  close  study  of  the  methods  of  packing  and  marketing  would  prob¬ 
ably  result  in  securing  a  portion  of  this  trade  if  the  volume,  as  shown 
in  the  preceding  table,  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  effort. 


280  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

THE  FISH  TRADE. 

The  appended  table  of  the  imports  of  “conserved”  fish  into  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  for  the  years  1917  to  1921  includes  all  fish 
not  dried  and  not  shipped  in  bundles  or  other  “  loose  ”  packing. 
Prior  to  1915  the  customs  authorities  did  not  show  the  figures  for  this 
commodity.  In  these  statistics  are  included  all  the  salt  fish  from 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Straits  Settlements  ports,  the  latter  being 
almost  entirely  transshipment  cargo.  The  imports  from  Japan  are 
largely  of  this  sort  of  fish,  but  an  attempt  to  sell  canned  Japanese 
salmon  and  sardines  in  this  market  has  met  with  some  success. 
Probably  a  very  high  percentage  of  Japan’s  exports  to  this  country 
are  of  the  salted  fish  which  are  not  in  competition  with  the  American 
canned  fish,  this  report  being  chiefly  concerned  with  the  latter.  The 
imports  from  China,  Hongkong,  and  the  Straits  Settlements  ports 
may  be  taken  to  be  entirely  of  the  salted  varieties,  which  form  a  part 
of  the  native  and  Chinese  diet.  Weights  are  taken,  rather  than  val¬ 
ues,  as  the  customs  authorities  use  an  arbitrary  price  in  making 
valuations  which  destroys  their  usefulness  for  purposes  of  com¬ 
parison. 


Countries. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921 1 

United  States . 

Kilos. 

233,707 
81,832 
16,670 
37, 032 
20,411 
10,397 
28, 453 
5,675 

Kilos. 

321,337 

11,721 

7,951 

Kilos. 
433, 106 
70,203 
20,122 
17,704 
1,268 
11,678 
23, 542 
8,435 

Kilos. 
1,069, 481 
298, 249 
66, 103 
73,245 

Kilos. 
1,105,120 
205, 112 
155,538 
12,535 

N  etherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

France . 

Spain . 

Portugal . 

32,375 
47, 237 
27,795 
2,139 
48,345 
252, 154 

2,990 

27,771 

Norway . 

40, 702 
9, 387 

Sweden . 

Germany . 

73,435 

20,382 

355,087 

Japan../. . 

455,769 

1,899,597 

92,157 

71,153 

84,930 

190,685 
250, 122 
71,992 
7,680 
11,035 

26,741 
285, 102 
58,874 
9,571 
12,758 

Singapore . 

Penang . 

Hongkong  and  China . 

9,327 

33,191 

68,944 

57,259 

All  other . 

Total . 

3, 037, 843 

922,612 

979, 104 

1,959,641 

2,084,173 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

2,360,127 

677,716 

484,627 

437,985 

562, 555 
416, 549 

1,959,641 

2,084,173 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

i  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Salmon. — Except  for  the  imports  from  Japan,  a  part  of  which  is 
transshipped  from  the  United  States,  the  Pacific  coast  salmon  can- 
ners  have  this  market  to  themselves.  The  cheapest  qualities  onl}7 
are  in  demand. 

Sardines. — Before  the  war  sardines  from  France  and  Portugal 
sold  at  prices  that  opened  the  very  large  cheap  trade  of  this  colony 
to  them.  A  characteristic  of  the  market  for  commodities  for  the 
native  trade  has  alwTays  been  that  even  a  slight  rise  in  price  reduces 
the  number  of  natives  who  can  afford  to  buy  a  product.  Both  sar¬ 
dines  and  salmon  are  sold  to  the  Dutch,  half-caste,  and  foreign 
population  and  to  the  wealthier  Chinese  and  high-class  natives. 
California  sardines  have  found  a  good  market  since  the  European 
product  was  shut  off.  A  very  large  trade  in  sardines  can  be  developed 
in  this  market,  but  evenness  of  quality,  distinct  differences  in  grades, 
and  the  cutting  of  every  factor  in  cost  to  the  ultimate  consumer  are 
requisite  for  the  opening  of  that  larger  market  with  the  native  trade. . 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


281 


Mackei'el  and  herring . — The  Dutch,  half-caste,  and  foreign  popula¬ 
tion  and  the  wealthier  Chinese  and  natives  furnish  the  market  for 
mackerel,  much  of  which  comes  from  the  United  States.  While  the 
trade  is  small  it  is  steady,  and  the  California  brands  have  an  estab¬ 
lished  place.  The  holding  of  this  place,  if  the  quality  remains  the 
same,  is  a  matter  of  providing  an  easy  channel  for  supply.  This 
depends  on  the  establishment  of  a  wide  range  of  foodstuffs  from 
America  in  this  market';  the  more  American  lines  placed  on  the  mar¬ 
ket  the  stronger  position  each  unit  of  trade  will  have.  There  is 
a  small  but  steady  trade  in  herring.  An  Australian  pack  has  met 
with  some  favor,  but  the  European  packs  are  considered  the  best. 

Cod-fish. — The  salt  fish  of  the  Orient  compete  against  codfish  here, 
and  the  freight  rates  and  higher  cost  of  labor  in  packing  are  against 
the  building  up  of  a  business  in  codfish  for  the  native  trade.  Some 
codfish  in  1-pound  tins  have  been  brought  out  for  the  higher  class 
trade,  but  it  has  not  yet  found  a  definite  place  for  itself. 

The  imports  into  British  Malaya  of  canned  fish  from  abroad  are 
included  in  the  statistics  covering  large  quantities  of  fish  caught  in 
oriental  waters,  and  therefore  have  no  significance  with  reference  to 
the  trade  in  American  packs.  The  greater  part  of  the  canned  fish 
imported  is  salmon,  which  is  used  principally  by  the  Chinese.  The 
wide  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  tin  have  caused  an  abnormal  ebb 
and  flow  of  the  Chinese  coolie  population,  and  this,  together  with 
the  variation  in  the  cost  of  living  and  in  wages,  has  influenced  the 
market  for  salmon  in  a  marked  degree.  The  low  prices  of  rubber 
and  tin  have  caused  a  depression  that  is  reflected  in  the  trade  of  all 
import  commodities,  especially  foodstuffs. 

The  cheapest  staple  qualities  of  salmon  only  are  in  demand. 

CANNED  FRUIT. 

Before  the  war  imports  of  canned  fruits  into  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  were  not  shown  separately.  The  following  table  shows  the 
imports,  by  countries,  for  the  whole  colony  in  1918  and  1919  and  for 
Java  and  TVladoera  only  in  1920: 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

19201 

United  States . 

Number  of 
cans. 
528,483 

Number  of 
cans. 
1,007,451 
8,101 
9,903 

Number  of 
cans. 
772,114 
27,232 
12,888 
2,664 
8,660 
65,092 

Netherlands . . 

France .  . 

Italy .  . 

Switzerland . 

Australia . 

47,639 
6,576 
53,056 
233, 183 
117,863 
27, 828 
7,520 

50,660 

Japan . 

Penang . 

52,655 

254,750 

158,685 

13,790 

7,861 

Singapore . 

9,458 

147,392 

13,753 

2,014 

Hongkong . 

China . 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,022,148 

1,563,856 

1,061,267 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

607,391 

414,757 

1,025,951 

537,905 

1,061,267 
•••••• »« •••• 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Jar*  and  Madoera  only. 


Hongkong  and  China. — The  imports  of  canned  fruits  from  Hong¬ 
kong  and  the  China  ports  are  given  separately,  as  shipments  from  the 


282  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

latter  ports  are  mostly  of  Chinese  preserved  fruit  in  jars  put  up  for 
the  Chinese  and  native  trade. 

Penang  and  Singapore. — These  cities  are  ports  of  transshipment 
rather  than  producing  points.  It  is  true  that  there  is  an  extensive 
business  in  Singapore  in  the  canning  of  pineapples,  but  these  are 
not  shipped  to  this  colony,  as  pineapples  grow  everywhere  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies.  Some  of  the  imports  from  these  two 
British  ports  are  jars  of  fruit  from  China,  but  most  of  them  are 
made  up  of  transshipment  cargoes  ordered  through  the  Singapore 
agents  of  California  canners  and  shipments  from  stocks  held  in 
Singapore  by  the  Chinese  jobbers  doing  business  with  the  East 
Coast  of  Sumatra. 

Australia. — The  Australian  fruits  had  gained  a  fairly  good  foot¬ 
ing  in  this  market  in  1915  as  a  second-grade  product.  The  quality 
of  the  fruit  is  far  below  California  standards,  and  the  labeling  is 
not  attractive.  Nevertheless,  the  Australian  packers  have  been  mak¬ 
ing  progress,  and  in  spite  of  the  labor  troubles  they  have  been  able 
to  keep  their  product  on  the  market.  California  packers  should 
watch  the  development  of  the  Australian  canned-fruit  trade,  as  the 
Australian  canners  seem  determined  to  push  their  goods  on  this 
market,  and,  while  they  are  putting  up  a  second  or  even  lower  grade, 
there  are  signs  of  improvement  and  their  pack  is  selling  steadily. 

The  United  States. — The  principal  feature  in  the  importation 
of  preserved  fruit  is  the  steadiness  of  the  demand  for  California 
packs.  The  chief  consumers  are  the  Europeans  and  Eurasians  and, 
for  table  use,  the  wealthier  class  of  Chinese,  while  considerable  quan¬ 
tities  are  consumed  by  the  natives  with  beverages  bought  from  the 
native  venders.  Some  years  ago  the  products  of  one  California 
packing  plant  was  sold  only  to  a  few  Dutch  importers,  who  attended 
to  the  distribution,  but  some  of  these  threw  their  stocks  onto  the 
Chinese  jobbers,  who  are  always  ready  to  speculate,  and  soon  the 
dealing  in  California  canned  fruit  became  a  speculation  rather  than 
a  straight  business  proposition.  All  the  foodstuffs  importers  stock 
California  canned  fruits,  and  as  the  market  is  to-day  there  is  an 
alternate  glut  and  shortage,  which  does  not  conduce  to  the  building 
up  of  a  larger  consumption. 

The  strong  position  of  the  California  fruit  canners  in  this  market 
might  be  turned  into  a  useful  lever  to  introduce  and  push  other  lines 
of  their  manufacture,  such  as  vegetables,  but  this  advantage  can 
not  be  exercised  without  a  centralized  control,  and  the  position  of 
canned  goods  in  the  market  seems  to  have  gone  beyond  the  point 
where  control  can  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  any  one  dealer  without 
antagonizing  the  others.  Under  present  conditions  no  one  cares  to 
put  any  energy  into  the  sale  of  California  canned  fruits,  and  no 
increase  of  consumption  will  come  about  through  the  initiative  of 
the  importers. 

American  canned  fruits  hold  first  place  in  British  Malaya,  but  in 
preserves,  jams,  and  jellies  Cross  &  Blackwell  still  hold  a  strong 
place.  There  is  a  small  native  trade  in  imported  fruits,  but  the 
per  capita  consumption  of  the  Europeans  and  better  class  of  Chinese 
is  large,  due  to  a  great  extent  to  the  fact  that  the  profits  in  the 
cultivation  of  rubber  have  led  the  natives  to  cut  out  their  fruit  trees 
and  replace  them  with  rubber. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


283 


DRIED  FRUIT. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  dried  fruits  and  nuts  for 
1918  and  1919  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  for  1920  into 
Java  and  Madoera  only: 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

United  States . 

Kilos. 

139,563 

\ 

Kilos. 

115,396 

10,024 

Kilos. 
156,600 
31, 162 
4,749 
2,946 
15,053 
97, 507 
252,815 

Netherlands . 

Great  Britain . 

Italy . 

13,058 

12,007 

France . 

Australia . 

30,815 
858,659 
311, 532 
29, 248 
81,920 
7,792 
17,476 

57, 147 
525,555 
231,415 
6,996 
75,031 

Singapore . 

Penang . 

British  India . 

23,256 
81, 157 
1,560 
822 

Hongkong  and  China . 

Japan . 

All  other . 

17,412 

Total . 

1, 490, 063 

1,050,983 

667,627 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

650,638 

839,425 

397, 158 
653,825 

667,627 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


These  totals  are  misleading  unless  the  kinds  of  dried  fruits  and 
nuts  imported  from  the  different  countries  are  taken  into  considera¬ 
tion.  The  imports  from  Singapore,  Penang,  British  India,  Hong¬ 
kong,  and  China  and  Japan  do  not  concern  the  American  exporter 
directly,  as  they  are  made  up  largely  of  the  products  peculiar  to  the 
Orient,  such  as  lichees,  ginger,  tamarinds,  and  the  dozens  of  dried 
fruits  and  nuts  known  to  the  int'eroriental  trade.  It  may  be  stated 
that  the  imports  from  these  oriental  countries  do  not  include  any 
apples,  prunes,  apricots,  peaches,  pears,  currants,  raisins,  etc.,  except 
for  an  occasional  transshipment. 

While  it  is  said  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  dried  fruit  coming 
from  the  Netherlands  is  grown  there,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  much 
of  the  fruit  coming  from  that  country  is  grown  elsewhere  and  col¬ 
lected  at  the  Dutch  cities  for  forwarding,  and  this  is  true  also  of 
the  imports  from  England.  From  southern  Europe  are  sent  some 
quantities  of  nuts,  citron,  and  other  products  of  the  subtropical  coun¬ 
tries.  Australia  is  the  principal  competitor  to-day  in  this  field  and 
its  fruits  have  found  their  way  into  all  the  markets. 

Packing . — Australia  is  selling  its  fruit  to  this  market  on  price. 
American  fruit  is  being  sold  on  quality.  While  the  better  quality  is 
acknowledged  in  the  trade,  American  shippers  are  not  taking  full 
advantage  of  this  difference,  as  the  quality  is  somewhat  leveled  by 
the  time  the  fruit  reaches  the  consumer  through  exposure  to  the  heat 
and  humidity  of  the  Tropics.  The  Australian  fruit  is  packed  in  cans 
of  from  9  to  10  pounds  each,  six  tins  to  the  case.  The  Australians 
have  not  yet  worked  out  this  packing  problem,  as  it  has  been  found 
that  some  fruits  can  not  be  packed  in  cans,  even  when  lined  with 
oiled  paper,  without  setting  up  a  chemical  action  that  destroys  the 
value  of  the  fruit.  Raisins  and  currants  have  been  most  successfully 
packed  in  this  way.  On  the  other  hand,  the  American  custom  is  to 
pack  the  fruit  in  10-pound  boxes,  six  to  the  case,  the  large  container 
being  tin  lined  and  hermetically  sealed.  While  this  preserves  the 


284  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

fruit  en  route,  as  soon  as  it  is  opened  the  intense  heat  of  the  Tropics 
begins  its  work.  Importers,  in  discussing  packing,  say  that  incasing 
each  10-pound  package  in  tin  would  add  greatly  to  the  keeping 
qualities,  but  they  fear  the  additional  cost  would  be  too  great. 
Should  an  individual  metal  packing  be  devised  for  these  small  pack¬ 
ages  it  might  be  so  constructed  that  it  could  be  closed  each  time  a 
sale  is  made  by  the  retailer,  as  the  action  of  this  climate  on  dried 
fruit  is  quick  and  the  sale  is  slow. 

Relative  demand  for  the  different  varieties. — Apricots  and  prunes 
have  first  claim  on  the  taste  in  this  market,  while  apples  come  next, 
with  peaches  and  pears  at  the  end  of  the  list.  There  is  some  demand 
for  raisins,  and  in  normal  times  table  raisins  from  Malaga,  Spain, 
wTere  used  largely  by  the  foreigners.  To-day  some  table  raisins  are 
imported  from  Australia,  but  they  are  seldom  seen  in  the  hotels  or 
in  the  shops.  There  is  a  small  demand  for  seedless  raisins. 

The  market. — Chinese  and  natives  of  the  working  classes  and  the 
small  shopkeepers  seldom  buy  these  fruits,  the  main  demand  being 
from  the  Dutch  and  foreign  population  and  from  the  wealthy  Chi¬ 
nese  and  high-born  natives. 

The  establishment  of  trans-Pacific  lines  making  good  connections 
with  Java  ports  will  give  a  stimulus  to  trade  in  dried  fruits  as  well 
as  in  other  lines,  but  only  provided  the  matter  of  packing  is  satisfac¬ 
torily  worked  out  and  a  strong  selling  service  is  established.  Some 
importers  have  had  so  unsatisfactory  an  experience  in  importing 
dried  fruits  from  the  United  States  that  they  consider  it  a  highly 
hazardous  business  and  prefer  to  leave  it  alone. 

The  demand  for  dried  fruits  in  British  Malaya  is  small,  and,  as  it 
is  only  the  wealthier  classes  who  can  buy  such  expensive  food,  it  is 
concentrated  in  the  western  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  cities.  The  growth  of  this  trade  depends  on  the  care 
with  which  the  fruit  is  packed  to  resist  the  heat  and  humidity.  One 
lot  of  2,000  cases  of  raisins  packed  in  wooden  cases  and  cartons,  which 
arrived  on  an  overstocked  market  early  in  1921,  had  to  be  shipped 
out  of  the  Tropics,  as  they  would  not  keep  until  the  market  could  ab¬ 
sorb  them.  Dried  fruit  is  a  comparatively  new  item  in  the  dietary 
of  the  Tropics,  but  the  trade  is  capable  of  considerable  development 
with  careful  working  out  of  packing  in  units  to  fit  the  demands  of 
the  trade. 

WHEAT  FLOUR. 


The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  wheat  flour  for  1913, 
1918,  and  1919  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  for  1920  and 
1921  into  J ava  and  Madoera  only : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tom. 
807 
888 
2,873 
90 
84 

Metric  tons. 
11 
280 
2,403 
1,344 
949 
3,575 
29, 708 
35 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tom. 

Metric  tons. 

United  States . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Hongkong . . 

China . 

347 

2,939 

119 

299 

10 

35,105 

50 

3,165 

2,988 

1,684 

1,384 

665 

17,455 

28 

705 
435 
4,124 
3, 150 
114 
21,311 
49 

Japan . 

Australia . 

All  other . 

Total . 

43, 262 
326 

48, 330 

38,305 

38,869  |  27,369 

29,888 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


285 


The  shorter  ocean  haul  gives  Australia  a  decided  advantage  in  the 
wheat-flour  trade,  and  that  colony  holds  the  predominant  position, 
although  there  have  been  times  when  there  were  slight  advantages 
that  allowed  the  Pacific  coast  mills  to  get  a  share  of  the  business. 
The  Pacific  coast  millers  have  been  alert  and  ready  to  come  into  the 
market  whenever  the  marketing  conditions  offered  an  opportunity. 
In  1920  Australia  put  a  partial  embargo  on  the  export  of  flour  which 
gave  American  millers  an  opportunity  to  get  into  the  market,  and 
the  exchange  in  silver  made  it  possible  in  1921  to  transship  some 
quantities  at  Hongkong. 

The  Australian  steamers  of  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschap- 
^pi j  and  the  steamers  of  the  Burns-Philp  Line  are  the  principal  car¬ 
riers  of  Australian  flour,  the  former  for  the  account  of  the  general  im¬ 
porters  and  the  latter  for  the  Australian  shipping  and  merchandising 
firm  of  Burns,  Philp  &  Co.,  which  has  branches  in  Java  ports.  The 
business  is  done  on  small  margins  and  there  is  considerable  specula¬ 
tion  in  it  by  the  Chinese  and  Arab  dealers,  who  are  the  intermediaries 
between  the  importers  and  the  bakers. 

American  flour  has  a  good  reputation  on  this  market  and,  prices 
being  equal,  there  is  an  even  chance  to  share  the  market  with  Austra¬ 
lia.  With  American  ships  sailing  direct  from  San  Francisco,  Port¬ 
land,  and  Puget  Sound  and  a  well-equipped  American  importing 
house  in  this  colony  prepared  to  do  close  merchandising,  it  is  possible 
that  American  flour  would  occasionally  be  able  to  get  a  small  share 
of  the  trade.  Transshipment  charges,  and  especially  the  roundabout 
route  via  Japan  and  Singapore,  make  it  impossible  to  compete. 

The  British  Malaya  market  for  flour  is  similar  in  many  respects  to 
that  of  the  Netherlands  Indies.  Freight  rates  favor  Australia  as 
against  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  the  coarse  flours 
of  the  China  coast  find  a  market  for  considerable  quantities.  The 
imports  for  the  Straits  Settlements  for  1919  were  as  follows:  United 
States,  111  tons;  Australia,  38,173  tons;  China,  5,044  tons;  Hong¬ 
kong,  6,936  tons;  British  India  and  Burma,  3,071  tons;  Japan,  139 
tons ;  and  all  others,  88  tons. 

CORN  MEAL. 


In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  imports  of  com  meal  for  1913, 
1918,  and  1919  into  the  Netherlands  East'  Indies  and  for  1920  and 
1921  into  Java  and  Madoera  only: 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  i 

1921 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
32 

Metric  tons. 

1 

41 

112 

22 

3 

Metric  tons. 
2 
73 
19 

Metric  tons. 
6 

55 

Metric  tons. 

3 

110 

1 

United  States . 

Australia . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

All  other . 

5 

4 

1 

Total . 

37 

179 

98 

62 

114 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


This  trade  is  small  and  is  generally  in  package  goods.  Corn 
meal  is  commonly  known  in  the  local  market  as  “  maizena.”  The 
trade  is  shared  between  the  United  Statfes  and  Australia,  the  Ameri- 


286  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

can  product  being  the  more  popular.  Careful  selling  and  advertis¬ 
ing  would  undoubtedly  develop  a  larger  market. 

Oatmeal. — One  American  brand  of  oatmeal,  put  up  under  brand 
in  packages,  has  a  considerable  trade  in  the  colony,  which  is  capable 
of  development  by  advertising  and  a  careful  sales  campaign. 

The  sale  of  breakfast  foods  is  to  the  Dutch  population  and  the  bet¬ 
ter  classes  of  Chinese.  The  possible  market  is  with  approximately 
2,000,000  people  under  the  present  development  of  the  population. 

BISCUITS. 

American  biscuits  have  been  on  the  Java  market,  but  an  effort  to 
get  a  place  in  the  trade  has  failed.  Australian  biscuits  (Swallow  & 
Ariel),  English  biscuits  (Huntley  &  Palmer),  and  Irish  biscuits 
(Jacobs  Bros.)  are  to  be  found  in  the  shops,  and  all  are  enjoying  a 
good  trade. 

Following  are  the  imports  of  biscuits  into  Java  and  Madoera,  by 
countries,  for  1919,  1920,  and  1921: 


Countries. 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Np.thfirlands . 

Kilos. 

85, 247 
299,320 
6,922 
45, 849 
1,771 
22,217 
559, 625 
40 

Kilos. 
216,635 
929, 109 
3,044 
29, 182 
5,920 
2,480 
872,256 
52 

Kilos. 

347,000 

228,000 

Great  Britain . 

United  States . 

Singapore . 

32,000 

China  and  Hongkong . 

Japan . 

Australia . 

252,000 

23,000 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,020,991 

2,058, 678 

882,000 

There  is  no  reason  why  American  biscuits  should  not  occupy  an 
important  place  in  this  trade.  Inasmuch  as  American  biscuits  are 
equal  in  every  respect  to  the  competitive  manufactures  the  problem 
is  not  one  of  manufacturing  but  of  packing  and  merchandising. 

In  the  Tropics  climatic  conditions  require  that  all  biscuit  cans  be 
hermetically  sealed.  European  manufacturers  wrap  the  cans  in 
waxed  paper,  neatly  sealed  so  that  the  distinctive  label  shows 
through.  Fruit  biscuits  do  not  keep  well,  even  when  tightly  sealed. 

From  the  nature  of  the  material  it  would  seem  that  any  attempt 
to  introduce  American  biscuits  would  have  to  be  based  on  a  quick 
campaign  that  would  insure  a  rapid  turnover  or  the  limiting  of  the 
sale  to  a  few  exclusive  dealers.  Biscuits  kept  on  the  shelves  for  long 
periods  are  sure  to  be  unsatisfactory  to  the  consumer. 

Swallow  &  Ariel,  of  Sydney,  and  Jacobs  Bros,  and  Huntley  & 
Palmer,  of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  the  suppliers  of  most  of  the 
biscuits  sold  in  British  Malaya.  American  biscuits  are  not  on  the 
market.  Jacobs  Bros,  take  the  lead  in  the  trade  in  soda  biscuits, 
while  the  other  two  companies  do  a  large  business  in  sweet  biscuits. 
Values  of  imports  for  1920,  in  Straits  dollars,  were  S$2,653,153,  of 
which  S$2,020,441  came  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  S$537,680 
from  Australia.  (1  Straits  dollar =$0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.) 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


287 


HAM. 

So  large  a  part  of  the  imports  of  pork  into  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  is  made  up  of  hams  that  the  customs  authorities  class  all 
pork  or  ham  in  the  returns. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  for  1913,  1917,  1918,  and 
1919  for  the  whole  colony,  the  figures  for  1920  and  1921  being  for 
Java  and  Madoera  only: 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  i 

United  States . 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 
7,673 
55, 180 
10,062 
2,489 
1,905 
13. 799 
137, 438 
10,688 

Kilos. 
5,587 
8, 711 
46,338 
3,884 
10,581 

Kilos. 
7,929 
20, 798 
14,005 
1,514 
1,569 
693 
252,069 
6,902 

Kilos. 

1,429 

29,020 

1,646 

Kilos. 

3,286 

25,247 

1,856 

Netherlands . 

Singapore . 

Penang . 

173, 136 
5,333 
2,236 
2,704 
21,043 
84,239 

Hongkong  and  China . 

Great  Britain . 

3,002 

4,900 

276,060 

1,651 

2,725 

4,064 

276,359 

Australia . 

Japan . 

186,591 

26,376 

Germany . 

9,253 

1,234 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,099 

1,522 

1,582 

340 

1,609 

299, 178 

240,333 

289, 590 

307,061 

318,048 

315, 146 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 

% 

Much  the  largest  part  of  the  pork  imported  is  for  the  Chinese 
trade,  but  there  is  also  a  considerable  trade  with  the  white  and  half-  . 
caste  population,  as  the  Dutch  breakfast  table  is  not  complete  without 
cold  sliced  ham.  The  natives,  being  Mohammedans,  never  touch  pork 
in  any  form.  Many  of  the  Chinese  can  not  afford  pork  as  a  regular 
diet  and  many  of  them  rarely  use  it  except  on  festive  occasions.  One 
importer  states  that  fully  60  per  cent  of  his  year’s  business  in  this 
commodity  is  for  the  Chinese  New  Year  festivities. 

The  Australian  packers  at  first  sent  to  this  colony  hams  cured  like 
those  sold  in  the  home  market,  but  after  a  few  disastrous  shipments 
they  decided  on  a  heavier  smoke,  and  their  hams  are  now  giv¬ 
ing  very  good  satisfaction.  Their  representatives  are  constantly  in 
Java  watching  the  trade  and  are  ready  to  meet  whatever  competition 
comes. 

Shipments  from  America  arrive  occasionally,  in  spite  of  the  ad¬ 
vantages  Australia  has  in  point  of  nearness  to  the  market,  and  there 
is  no  complaint  against  the  quality.  One  importer  stated:  “Your 
smoke  is  right  and  your  packing  is  right,  but  your  prices  are  too 
high.” 

British  Malaya’s  principal  source  of  supply  for  hams  and  bacon  is 
Australia,  with  Hongkong  and  China  taking  the  second  place.  The 
China  pork  is  of  a  poorer  quality.  The  imports  for  1920  were 
S$745,824,  of  which  S$459,284  came  from  Australia,  S$181,764  from 
Hongkong  and  China,  S$84,578  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
S$19,383  from  the  United  States.  (Values  are  in  Straits  dollars,  1 
Straits  dollar  equaling  $0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.) 

CHEMICALS. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  requires  large 
quantities  of  chemicals,  both  for  fertilizers  and  for  combating  plant 
diseases  and  pests,  and  the  industries  take  considerable  quantities. 


288  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  sugar  industry  ranks  first,  principally  as  a  market  for  sulphate 
of  ammonia  and  phosphates. 

The  tobacco  planters  of  Java  buy  large  quantities  of  phosphates, 
lead  arsenate,  Paris  green,  and  other  chemicals.  The  purchases  . 
are  made  either  through  their  home  offices  in  the  Netherlands  or 
from  the  Java  importing  houses.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  area 
under  tobacco  in  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  district  is  controlled  by 
one  company,  which  buys  its  supplies  of  chemicals  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  but  the  importers  in  Medan,  Sumatra,  and  Penang  (Straits 
Settlements)  bid  for  the  business  and  carry  stocks  for  the  needs  of 
the  other  agricultural  enterprises. 

The  rubber  plantations  in  both  colonies  use  large  quantities  of 
phenols  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  diseases,  but  no  fertilizer. 

The  ice  factories,  aerated-water  factories,  quinine  and  cocaine  fac¬ 
tories,  and  other  industries  use  considerable  quantities  of  chemicals, 
which  have  to  be  imported. 

The  Minister  of  Agriculture  at  The  Hague  issues  the  Codex 
Meststoffe,  which  describes  in  detail  the  requirements  for  fertilizers 
used  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 

PRINCIPAL  CHEMICAL  PRODUCTS  IN  DEMAND. 

• 

Acetic  acid  (CH3COOH). — Acetic  acid  is  used  in  large  quantities 
for  coagulating  the  latex  from  the  rubber  trees.  The  supply  taken 
by  the  Netherlands  Indies  came  principally  from  Germany  before 
the  war,  and  when  that  source  was  cut  off  the  trade  went  to  Japan. 
At  first  there  were  serious  complaints  against  the  quality  of  the 
Japanese  product,  but  later  it  was  improved  and  for  several  years 
has  been  satisfactory  in  all  respects.  American  factories  have  sup¬ 
plied  some  of  the  demand,  but  no  permanent  success  has  been  made 
in  securing  a  share  of  this  trade. 

Before  1919  no  figures  of  acetic-acid  imports  into  the  Netherlands 
Indies  were  given  in  the  returns.  The  imports  for  1919  and  1920, 
by  countries  of  origin,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1919 

19201 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
21 

1 

2 

146 

50 

Metric  tons. 

73 

81 

18 

90 

306 

31 

United  States.. . 

Great  Britain . 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

Japan  .1 . . 

All  other . 

Total . 

220 

599 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


In  British  Malaya  glacial  acetic  acid,  as  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  is  used  for  coagulating  the  latex  from  rubber  trees. 
With  a  normal  production  of  rubber  there  are  about  5,000  demijohns 
of  44  pounds  each  used  every  month.  The  Japanese  factories  sup¬ 
ply  most  of  the  demand,  and  although  American  factories  have 
shipped  in  small  quantities,  they  have  gained  no  share  of  the  trade. 

The  quality  is  99  to  100  per  cent  pure  and  must  be  guaranteed 
absolutely  free  from  all  traces  of  copper  and  other  minerals,  as  the 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


289 


slightest  trace  of  mineral  substances  will  lower  the  grade  of  the  rub¬ 
ber  produced.  Water- white  color  is  preferred  in  British  Malaya. 

Packing  is  in  demijohns  of  44  pounds  net,  double  wickered  and 
packed  two  demijohns  in  a  strong  wooden  case,  securely  strapped 
with  iron,  mouth  of  demijohn  to  be  securely  corked  and  sealed  with 
wax. 

Alum  (A12(S04)3.K2S04.24H20). — Alum  is  used  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  by  apothecaries  and  photographers,  as  in  other 
countries,  but  the  amounts  used  for  these  purposes  are  small.  Large 
quantities  are  employed  in  some  parts  of  the  colony  for  softening 
and  clarifying  water  for  cattle,  and  considerable  quantities  are  taken 
by  ice  factories,  while  some  alum  is  used  for  coagulating  rubber. 

Of  the  359  metric  tons  imported  by  the  Netherlands  Indies  in 
1913,  164  tons  came  from  the  Netherlands,  20  tons  from  England, 
23  tons  from  Germany,  and  119  tons  from  Belgium,  while  Singapore, 
Penang,  and  Hongkong  had  no  share  in  the  trade.  Of  the  1,620  tons 
imported  in  1919,  12  tons  came  from  the  Netherlands,  67  tons  from 
England,  231  tons  from  Japan,  938  tons  from  Penang  and  Singa¬ 
pore,  and  365  tons  from  Hongkong.  In  1920  Java  and  Madoera  im¬ 
ported  821  tons,  160  tons  of  which  came  from  the  Netherlands,  36 
tons  from  the  United  States,  221  tons  from  Great  Britain,  108  tons 
from  Singapore,  154  tons  from  Hongkong,  and  the  balance  from 
Germany,  Belgium,  and  Japan. 

In  British  Malaya  powdered  alum  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a 
coagulant  for  making  rubber  from  latex,  but  to  a  less  extent  than 
formerly,  as  the  price  of  acetic  acid  has  brought  that  chemical  into 
closer  competition.  The  Government  does  not  look  favorably  on  the 
use  of  alum  as  a  coagulant. 

Packing  is  in  kegs  of  112  pounds  net  for  the  general  trade  and  in 
60-kilo  barrels  for  the  ice  factories. 

Ammonia ,  anhydrous  (NH3). — There  is  a  good  demand  for  an¬ 
hydrous  ammonia  in  British  Malaya  for  use  in  the  ice  factories.  Im¬ 
porters  emphasize  that  it  shall  be  pure  and  dry.  It  is  packed  in 
steel  cylinders  of  100  or  150  pounds  net. 

Ammonium  carbonate. — There  is  a  small  demand  in  British 
Malaya  for  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  cases  of  four  25-pound  tins. 

Ammonium  sulphate  ( (NH4)2S04). — The  Suiker  Proefstation  van 
Oost  Java,  which  has  access  to  the  figures  of  all  but  three  of  the 
mills,  states  that  the  sugar  culture  alone  uses  from  900,000  to  1,000,- 
000  piculs  of  ammonium  sulphate  a  year  (56,000  to  62,000  tons). 
This  would  amount  to  about  4  piculs  to  the  bouw,  or  2J  piculs  (1 
picul=136  pounds)  to  the  acre. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  amounts  of  ammonium  sulphate 
used  by  the  different  estates  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  Some 
lands  recently  reclaimed  from  the  jungle  do  not  require  any,  while 
the  older  estates,  where  the  soil  is  heavy,  use  up  to  10  pfculs  to  the 
bouw  (about  800  pounds  to  the  acre).  It  is  claimed  that  no  other 
artificial  fertilizer  is  so  suitable  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  although 
in  some  cases  the  margin  of  superiority  is  small.  It  is  put  on  the 
ground  usually  in  a  powdered  form,  but  in  some  sections  it  is  mixed 
with  water  to  prevent  theft.  Considerable  labor  is  required  to  work 
all  other  fertilizers  into  the  soil,  and  at  times  when  the  men  are 


290  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


needed  for  other  work,  but  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  fed  to  the  soil 
by  women  after  the  planting  is  finished.  This  method  is  exact  and 
easily  controlled. 

Packing  is  usually  in  bags  of  112  to  200  pounds.  The  American 
product  has  been  found  to  be  satisfactory,  and  the  only  serious  com¬ 
plaint  has  been  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  supplies.  The  planters 
buy  from  the  importers  on  the  basis  of  nitrogen  content,  25  per  cent 
NH3  being  the  usual  guaranty.  Care  should  be  taken  to  stow  the 
bags  in  a  dry  place,  as  water  dissolves  the  salts  and  causes  the  whole 
to  cake  and  the  bags  to  rot  more  quickly  than  they  otherwise  would. 
Ammonium  sulphate  should  be  free  from  sodium,  and  should  not 
contain  more  than  1  per  cent  of  free  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  ammonium  sulphate  into 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies  since  1915  by  countries  of  origin.  Be¬ 
fore  1915  the  imports  were  given  in  values  only,  and,  as  the  arbitrary 
method  of  valuation  used  makes  such  figures  valueless  for  compari¬ 
son,  the  imports  of  earlier  years  are  not  given. 


Countries. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

United  States . 

Metric  tom. 
4,027 

Metric  tons. 
156 

Metric  tons. 
20 

1,066 

16,005 

Metric  tons. 

373 

Metric  tom. 
660 
10, 838 
14, 272 

Metric  tom. 
1,289 
47,298 
30,348 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

100, 205 
112 
299 
81 
2,197 

85, 084 

British  possessions . 

Japan . 

Australia . 

China . 

1,301 
537 
3, 798 

2,871 
15, 106 
4,970 
1,591 

4, 179 
7,727 
6,007 

1, 035 
2,837 
4,894 

3,785 
24, 250 
4, 583 

All  other . 

2 

14 

Total . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

106, 923 

90,876 

41,629 

18, 286 

34, 550 

111,553 

106,753 

170 

90, 729 
147 

41,430 

199 

17, 847 
439 

34,478 

72 

111,  553 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


In  1915  England  supplied  93  per  cent  of  the  total  imports  shown 
in  the  preceding  table  and  the  Netherlands  supplied  4  per  cent. 
The  United  States  appeared  in  the  returns  for  the  first  time  in  1917. 
In  that  year  the  imports  dropped  54  per  cent  below  1916  and  61  per 
cent  below  1915.  Great  Britain  supplied  38  per  cent;  Japan  supplied 
36  per  cent;  Australia,  12  per  cent;  British  India,  Singapore,  and 
Hongkong,  7  per  cent;  China,  3  per  cent;  and  the  United  States,  2 
per  cent.  During  1918  and  1919  it  was  impossible  to  get  supplies  on 
account  of  the  shortage  of  tonnage  and  the  inability  of  the  producing 
countries  to  make  shipments,  but  in  1920  the  imports  jumped  to 
normal,  at  111,553  tons,  of  which  42  per  cent  came  from  the  United 
States,  27  per  cent  from  Great  Britain,  and  22  per  cent  from  Japan. 

Aniline  dyes. — The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  aniline 
dyes  imported  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in  the  years  1913, 
1917,  1918,  1919,  1920,  and  the  first  11  months  of  1921: 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


291 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

19211 

Netherlands . 

Kilos. 

144,239 

Kilos. 
27, 437 

Kilos. 

8, 450 
8,514 

Kilos. 
49,016 
14, 286 
9, 323 
2, 500 
5,743 

Kilos. 

95,385 

1,862 

1,755 

Kilos. 

74,959 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

2,004 

France . 

Germany . 

105,928 

11,396 

1, 126 

61, 054 
12, 691 
4, 105 

90, 891 
2,043 

Belgium . 

Switzerland . 

6,750 

367 

1,557 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

68, 125 
1,096 

2, 544 
322 

■ 

3,427 
1, 131 

All  other . 

19 

1,029 

Total . 

332, 788 

31,429 

16,983 

89, 542 

177, 881 

172,451 

1  First  11  months. 

Note.— The  figures  for  1913,  1917,  1918,  and  1919  include  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  and  the 
Outer  Possessions,  while  the  figures  for  1920  and  1921  are  for  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  larger  part  of  the  increased  imports  of  dyes  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands  must  be  credited  to  Germany,  as  well  as  that  part  coming 
direct.  American  dyes  are  not  regarded  favorably,  and  American 
manufacturers  will  have  to  use  their  utmost  efforts  in  order  to  retain 
a  place  in  this  field.  If  they  can  win  in  this  market,  it  may  be 
taken  as  proof  that  they  can  win  in  any  other  of  the  world’s  mar¬ 
kets,  as  the  prestige  of  German  dye  manufactures  is  high,  and  the 
German  manufacturers’  acquaintance  with  the  trade  is  thorough. 

Basic  slag  ( Thomas  'phosphate). — Basic  slag,  or  Thomas  phos-* 
phate,  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  tobacco  fields  of  the  Su¬ 
matra  East  Coast.  Purchases  are  made  direct  by  the  estates  through 
Medan  importers  and  from  importers  in  Singapore  and  Penang ;  also 
through  the  Netherlands  offices  of  the  tobacco  companies,  as  outlined 
below.  The  basis  of  price  is  17  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  in 

mineral  acid,  of  which  80  per  cent  must  be  soluble  in  a  2  per  cent 

citric-acid  solution. 

By  basic  slag  is  understood  the  product  obtained  by  the  milling 
of  the  slag  left  after  making  steel  from  phosphorus-bearing  iron, 
according  to  the  Thomas-Gilchrist  or  similar  processes,  without  any 
addition  taking  place  during  this  milling. 

Basic  slag  must  contain  15  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  soluble  in 

mineral  acid,  of  which  80  per  cent  must  be  soluble  in  a  2  per  cent 

citric-acid  solution,  according  to  the  Wagner  method,  unless  the 
content  of  phosphoric  acid  soluble  in  mineral  acid  is  more  than  16.5 
per  cent.  (In  both  cases  with  a  margin  of  5  per  cent.) 

For  failure  to  comply  with  these  requirements  the  following  allow¬ 
ances  shall  be  made : 

By  an  ascertained  content  of  less  than  16.5  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  a  solubility  of  74  per  cent  to  and  including  70  per  cent,  5 
per  cent  of  the  purchase  price;  while  by  a  solubility  of  less  than  70 
per  cent  the  lot  can  be  refused,  or,  if  this  is  no  longer  possible,  an 
allowance  of  at  least  25  per  cent  must  be  made. 

By  an  ascertained  content  of  more  than  16.5  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  a  solubility  of  69  per  cent  to  and  including  65  per  cent,  5 
per  cent  of  the  purchase  price;  while  by  a  solubility  of  less  than  65 
per  cent  the  lot  can  be  refused,  or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  an  allowance 
of  at  least  25  per  cent  must  be  made. 

These  figures  relate  to  basic  slag  sold  without  guaranty.  In  a 
sale  with  guaranteed  content,  the  stuff  supplied  must  agree  with  the 

19878°— 23 - 20 


292  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

guaranty,  but  still  80  per  cent,  respectively  75  per  cent  of  the  content 
which  is  soluble  in  mineral  acid,  shall  be  soluble  in  a  2  per  cent  citric- 
acid  solution,  as  given  above.  For  noncompliance  with  this  require¬ 
ment  of  solubility  the  same  allowance  shall  be  made. 

Basic  slag  must  be  milled  so  fine  that  the  content  of  flour,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  methods  followed  by  the  Rijkslandbouwproefstations 
(Government  laboratories),  must  be  75  per  cent.  The  product  must 
be  capable  of  sowing  by  machine,  and  therefore  free  from  rough  par¬ 
ticles  of  steel. 

If  the  content  of  fineness  is  not  up  to  requirements,  the  following 
allowances  must  be  made:  69  per  cent,  6  per  cent  of  the  purchase 
price;  68  per  cent,  8  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price;  67  per  cent,  10 
per  cent  of  the  purchase  price ;  66  per  cent,  12  per  cent  of  the  purchase 
price ;  65  per  cent,  14  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price ;  while  below  65 
per  cent  the  lot  can  be  refused,  or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  an  allow¬ 
ance  must  be  made  of  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  basic  slag  is  used  on  the  East  Coast  of 
Sumatra  for  fertilizing  tobacco.  American  quotations  are  to  be 
made  c.  i.  f .  Belawan,  Sumatra,  packing  to  be  in  new  double  bags  of  2 
hundredweight  (224  pounds)  each. 

Tenders  for  supply  of  basic  slag  are  usually  called  for  in  March  or 
April  by  the  local  administrators  of  tobacco  companies  at  Medan, 
such  as  Deli  Maatschappij,  Medan  Tabak  Mij.,  Deli  Batavia  Mij., 
Senembah  Maatschappij,  and  Amsterdam  Deli  Cie.,  of  Amsterdam; 
and  Bunge  &  Co.,  Rotterdam  Deli  Mij.,  United  Lankat  Plantations 
Co.  (Ltd.),  Amsterdam  Serdang  Tabak  Mij.,  and  Amsterdam  Lankat 
Cie.,  of  Rotterdam. 

When  offers  based  on  quotations  are  submitted  to  the  head  admin¬ 
istrations  of  the  tobacco  companies  in  Sumatra,  they  are  referred  to 
the  directors  in  the  Netherlands.  When  business  is  brought  about 
through  the  efforts  of  the  Straits  Settlements  or  Medan  importers, 
manufacturers  should  protect  such  importers  to  the  extent  of  a  rea¬ 
sonable  commission. 

To  save  loss  of  exchange,  etc.,  most  of  the  payments  are  made 
in  Europe,  and  this  will  probably  be  the  course  adopted  by  the  large 
tobacco  companies.  Most  of  the  business  is  quoted  f.  o.  b.  English 
port,  all  shipping  charges  and  insurance  to  be  effected  by  suppliers 
on  behalf  and  for  account  of  buyers,  but,  where  feasible,  consumers 
will  be  glad  to  have  a  c.  i.  f.  Belawan  quotation. 

The  proper  course  to  be  pursued  in  order  to  secure  tenders,  pro¬ 
vided  prices  are  right,  is  to  appoint  an  agent  in  the  Netherlands 
who  can  correspond  in  the  Dutch  language  with  the  head  directors 
and  quote  prices  to  them,  adding  a  reasonable  commission  for  the 
importer  who  initiated  the  business. 

A  copy  of  translation  from  the  Indische  Cultuur  Alamank  of  1913 
follows : 

Basic  slag  17  per  cent  total  phosphoric  acid  at  -  per  bag  of  100  kilos 

gross,  c.  i.  f.  Belawan;  80  per  cent  (tolerance,  5  per  cent)  soluble  in  a  3  per 
cent  citric-acid  solution;  fineness,  80  to  90  per  cent;  further  conditions  as  per 
regulations  for  fertilizers  as  per  Indische  Cultuur  Almanak  1913. 

Samples  of  all  shipments  from  Europe  are  analyzed  at  the  labora¬ 
tory  at  Hoorn  and  a  certificate  is  issued.  This  certificate  is  generally 
accepted  as  sufficient  evidence  of  the  quality  of  the  fertilizer,  but 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


293 


when  desired  further  samples  can  be  drawn  at  Belawan  in  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  both  buyer  and  seller  and  analyzed  by  the  Deli  proof  station 
at  Medan. 

The  basic  slag  generally  imported  into  Sumatra  has  a  higher  per¬ 
centage  of  phosphoric  acid  than  that  ordinarily  supplied  by  British 
firms.  The  usual  quality  sold  ranges  in  content  of  phosphoric  acid 
from  17  per  cent  to  21  per  cent  basis,  17  per  cent  excess  paid  for  pro 
rata.  Many  estates  prefer  to  get  a  content  of  about  20  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  but  it  all  depends  on  the  quality  of  that  chemical 
required  by  the  soil. 

It  is  for  practical  purposes  impossible  to  adjust  the  content  of 
phosphoric  acid  on  the  estates  by  the  addition  of  sand  or  earth. 
Where  a  soil  requires  a  large  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  there  is  a 
saving  in  freight  by  importing  basic  slag  of  21  per  cent,  the  economy 
being  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  content  of  phosphoric  acid ;  that 
is,  it  would  take  21  bags  of  17  per  cent  to  fertilize  the  same  area  as 
17  bags  of  21  per  cent. 

The  food  in  basic  slag  does  not  become  available  to  the  plant  so 
readily  as  in  the  case  of  superphosphate  and  some  other  fertilizers. 
Agriculturists  are  therefore  adopting  a  uniform  procedure  of  ap¬ 
plying  the  fertilizer  to  the  land  some  time  before  planting  commences, 
so  as  to  have  the  plant  food  available  by  the  time  it  is  wanted. 

It  is  important  to  secure  cheap  and  timely  freights.  No  question 
of  “  force  majeure  ”  or  other  reason  for  failure  to  deliver  on  time  will 
be  accepted  by  the  planters  of  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra.  The 
fertilizer  must  arrive  in  time  for  the  crop  or  the  sellers  will  have  to 
buy  locally.  This  would  mean  a  big  loss,  owing  to  the  high  price  of 
fertilizer  when  bought  from  the  stock  in  Sumatra. 

Boric  add  (H3B03). — There  is  a  small,  steady  demand  in  British 
Malaya  for  boric  acid  in  powder  form  for  the  retail  drug  trade. 
Packing  is  in  kegs  of  1  hundredweight  (112  pounds). 

Calcium  carbide  (CaC2). — Calcium  carbide  is  used  in  large  quan¬ 
tities  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  for  signal  and  station  lights, 
lighthouses,  and  port  lights  and  for  lighting  the  tin  mines,  as  well 
as  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  the  population'. 

There  is  a  factory  at  Poerworedjo,  Java,  producing  small  quan¬ 
tities,  which  it  is  proposed  to  enlarge.  A  project  was  under  way 
some  time  ago  to  build  a  large  chemical  plant  in  Sumatra,  utilizing 
the  falls  of  the  Asahan  River  to  produce  the  necessary  power,  but 
nothing  has  been  heard  of  the  developments  since  the  financial 
stringency  began  to  be  felt.  It  was  proposed  to  produce  calcium 
carbide  in  this  plant,  as  well  as  other  chemicals. 


294  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  imports  of  calcium  carbide  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
by  countries  of  origin,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
339 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

11 

Metric  tons. 

99 

United  States . 

360 

294 

87 

Great  Britain . 

21 

139 

Germany . 

326 

Sweden  and  Norway . 

7 

72 

564 

Japan . . . . 

1,285 

184 

293 

1 

All  other . 

22  . 

98 

1 

Total . 

715 

1,829 

76.8 

891 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

523 

1,547 

282 

437 

891 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

192 

331  . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  Netherlands  and  Germany  controlled  this  trade  before  the 
war,  as  shown  in  the  1913  returns,  but  since  the  war  the  United  States 
and  Japan  have  held  important  places.  In  1920  Sweden  and  Norway 
supplied  the  largest  part  (65  per  cent),  while  England  supplied  16 
per  cent,  the  Netherlands  11  per  cent,  and  the  United  States  a  scant 
10  per  cent. 

In  British  Malaya  there  is  a  steady  but  gradually  decreasing  de¬ 
mand  for  calcium  carbide  in  lumps  or  pieces  of  one-half  inch  in 
diameter.  From  trade  sources  it  is  learned  that  England,  Japan, 
and  Sweden  are  the  principal  countries  supplying  the  trade,  and  a 
Canadian  product  is  being  imported  which  is  giving  satisfaction. 
Packing:  In  100-pound  drums  with  wooden  covers. 

Calcium  chloride ,  crystallized  (CaCl2.6H20). — Crystallized  cal¬ 
cium  chloride  is  used  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  small  quantities 
for  making  ice.  It  is  packed  in  strong  iron  drums-  to  contain  from 
200  to  225  kilos.  The  American  drum  used  in  the  domestic  trade 
is  too  light  for  shipment  to  this  market. 

This  chemical  is  also  used  by  the  ice  factories  in  British  Malaya, 
but  the  trade  is  not  large.  Quality:  73  to  75  per  cent;  powdered 
preferred.  Packing:  In  iron  drums  of  5  hundredweight  (560 
pounds). 

Calcium  chloride ,  anhydrous  (CaCl2). — Anhydrous  calcium  chlo¬ 
ride  is  used  in  the  laboratories  (of  which  there  are  a  large  number 
in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies)  and  in  the  manufacture  of  quinine 
(Bandoengsche  Kinniefabriek,  Bandoeng,  Java). 

Chloroform  (CHC13). — Chloroform  is  used  in  the  cocaine  factory 
at  Soekaboemi,  Java,  in  the  extraction  of  cocaine  (N.  Y.  Java  Co- 
cainefabriek)  from  coca  leaves  and  for  the  usual  purposes  in  the 
laboratories  and  hospitals.  It  is  imported  for  the  apothecaries  in 
1-pound  bottles,  packed  50  bottles  to  the  case.  All  liquids  should 
be  carefully  packed  in  sawdust. 

Chloroform  is  imported  into  British  Malaya  by  the  dispensaries, 
which  sell  it  under  license.  The  import  is  small. 

Citric  acid  (C6H807). — In  British  Malaya  citric  acid  is  used  in 
considerable  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters,  of 
which  there  is  a  large  per  capita  consumption.  Formerly  it  came 
from  Italy,  but  the  American  product  is  becoming  known  and  now 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


295 


has  an  important  place  in  the  trade.  Packing :  In  kegs  of  1  hundred¬ 
weight  (112  pounds)  and  in  1-pound  tins  in  cases. 

Ferrous  sulphate  ( sulphate  of  iron  or  green  vitriol)  (FeS04. 
7H20). — In  the  Netherlands  Indies  sulphate  of  iron  is  used  by  the 
apothecaries  and  in  the  tanneries.  There  is  a  small  factory  in  the 
colony  making  ink  that  uses  a  small  quantity,  but  its  production  is 
negligible. 

F ormaldehyde  (HCOH). — Formaldehyde  is  used  as  an  anticoagu¬ 
lant  for  rubber  and  for  disinfecting  the  machines,  tanks,  and  other 
equipment  coming  in  contact  with  latex  and  rubber.  It  is  diluted 
to  one-fortieth  when  used  as  an  anticoagulant  and  to  stronger  solu¬ 
tions  when  used  as  a  disinfectant.  The  consumption  is  steady.  There 
are  no  means  of  knowing  the  quantities  used  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies,  but  the  consumption  in  British  Malaya  is  approximately  2 
tons  per  month.  From  trade  sources  it  is  learned  that  England  is 
supplying  the  principal  part  of  the  imports,  while  some  quantities 
are  coming  from  the  United  States  and  Germany. 

Quality :  Nominally  40  per  cent  solution,  but  actually  runs  a  little 
lower.  Packing :  Same  as  for  acetic  acid. 

Formic  acid  (HCOOH) . — Formic  acid  was  formerly  used  in  British 
Malaya  to  some  extent  for  the  coagulation  of  latex,  but  owing  to  the 
lower  price  of  acetic  acid  it  is  no  longer  used. 

Chemical  guano. — Chemical  guano  is  imported  into  the  ports  of  the 
Straits  Settlements  for  resale  to  the  planters  of  the  East  Coast  of 
Sumatra.  It  is  used  in  various  compositions  and  must  contain  nitro¬ 
gen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  The  supply  comes  from  England 
and  Germany.  The  Anglo  &  Continental  Guano  Works  of  London 
and  Germany  is  one  of  the  principal  suppliers.  The  Kali  Syndikat 
of  Germany  is  another  big  supplier,  and  is  said  practically  to  control 
the  price,  which  is  fixed  according  to  the  percentage  of  phosphoric 
acid,  nitrogen,  and  potash  content.  Anything  below  specifications  is 
subject  to  rebate.  Different  estates  require  different  content. 

Gypsum  (CaS04.2H20). — Gypsum  is  not  used  to  any  extent  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  is  not  an  important  article  of  commerce 
in  British  Malaya.  Small  quantities  are  produced  in  the  Residency 
of  Cheribon,  and  a  chemical  factory  in  Soerabaya,  producing  super¬ 
phosphates  from  bone,  also  produces  gypsum,  for  which  there  is  no 
available  market. 

Hematite  (Fe203). — Hematite,  or  red  oxide  of  iron,  is  used  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  in  large  quantities  for  paints  and  for  polish¬ 
ing  glass  and  marble.  It  is  called  “  dodekap  ”  or  “  ijzermenie  ”  by  the 
local  trade,  and  is  stocked  by  the  machinery  importers  and  the  general 
importers. 

Hematite  is  usually  imported  into  British  Malaya  in  dry  form,  but 
also  comes  ground  in  oil.  It  is  used  in  large  quantities,  particularly 
for  painting  structural  and  other  iron  work. 

Hydrochloric  acid  (HC1). — There  is  a  small  sale  of  hydrochloric 
acid  in  British  Malaya.  It  is  imported  in  42-pound  jars,  when  diluted 
to  muriatic  acid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.16,  and  in  air-tight  drums  of 
56  and  112  pounds  net. 

Lead  arsenate. — Lead  arsenate  is  used  in  considerable  quantities  by 
the  tobacco  planters  of  Sumatra  and  Java  for  the  treatment  of  to¬ 
bacco  plants.  The  “  proefstation  ”  of  the  Deli  Maatschappij  has  is- 


296 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


sued  the  following  circular,  defining  the  requirements  of  the  estates 
of  that  company : 

In  view  of  the  numerous  shipments  of  lead  arsenate  which  have  been  re¬ 
jected  as  unfit  for  use  on  the  tobacco  plantations  of  Deli  during  this  campaign, 
we  have  undertaken  an  extensive  investigation  of  the  various  parcels  imported, 
and  the  old  conditions  must  be  revised  and  amplified,  of  which  you  will  please 
inform  your  supplier.  The  new  conditions  are  as  follows : 

Lead  arsenate  must  be  a  light,  fine  powder,  with  a  specific  weight  of  0.35  to 
0.5,  so  that  it  will  float  in  a  liquid  for  a  long  time.  It  must  not  contain  any 
acids,  such  as  sulphuric,  nitric,  etc.,  which  is  important  as  regards  the  burn¬ 
ing  of  leaves,  in  view  of  the  plant’s  sensitiveness  to  acids.  It  must  not  contain 
iron,  or  only  traces  of  it.  It  must  contain  at  least  60  per  cent  of  lead  oxide 
(PbO)  and  a  total  of  30  per  cent  of  arsenic  pentoxide.  It  may  further  hold  at 
most  0.5  per  cent  of  water-soluble  arsenic  pentoxide,  a  total  of  0.5  per  cent  of 
arsenic  trioxide,  and  0.1  per  cent  of  water-soluble  arsenic  trioxide.  The  mois¬ 
ture  content,  with  regard  to  clotting,  must  not  exceed  1  or  2  per  cent.  As  to 
packing,  there  are  to  be  recommended  iron  drums,  with  a  net  content  of  25  to 
50  kilos.  Such  packing  simplifies  the  task  of  taking  samples  and  also  reduces 
the  cost  of  the  lead  arsenate. 

Red  lead  {minium)  (Pb304). — Red  lead  is  used  in  considerable 
quantities  for  making  paint  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  being 
called  “  menie  ”  or  “  menium  ”  by  the  local  trade.  It  is  stocked  by 
the  machinery  importers  and  the  general  importers.  Red  lead  is 
imported  into  British  Malaya  in  fairly  large  quantities  for  the  ordi¬ 
nary  uses  of  the  building  and  engineering  trades. 

Nitric  acid  (HNOs). — There  is  a  small  demand  in  British  Malaya 
for  nitric  acid  for  the  goldsmiths  and  other  metal  workers.  Quality : 
Specific  gravity,  1.42.  Packing:  56-pound  carboys. 

Oxalic  acid  (H2C204.2H20). — Oxalic  acid  is  imported  into  British 
Malaya  in  small  quantities  for  the  dispensary  trade.  Quality :  98  to 
100  per  cent;  crystals.  Packing:  Strong  casks  containing  112 
pounds  net. 

Paris  green  {JSchweinfurt  green). — Paris  green  is  used  by  the 
tobacco  growers  in  J ava  and  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  for  treating 
tobacco  leaves  for  the  prevention  of  insect  pests.  In  the  pre-war 
years  it  came  from  Germany  and  is  again  being  imported  from  that 
country.  E.  Merek,  of  Darmstadt,  Germany,  makes  the  product 
most  in  demand.  It  is  important  that  the  Paris  green  should  not 
contain  more  than  the  stipulated  margin  of  soluble  arsenious  oxide, 
as  this  chemical  burns  the  tobacco  leaves.  Further,  it  has  sometimes 
happened  that  green  has  been  supplied  which,  on  exposure  to  the 
weather  on  the  plants,  resolves  itself  into  its  original  constituents; 
that  is,  the  arsenious  oxide  came  away  from  the  other  ingredients, 
or,  in  other  words,  became  free  and  soluble.  Any  such  green  would, 
of  course,  be  rejected  by  the  buyers. 

Quality:  Must  contain  56  to  58  per  cent  arsenious  trioxide,  of 
which  not  more  than  0.40  per  cent  should  be  water  soluble.  Packing : 
In  tins  of  5  kilos,  20  tins  to  the  case.  Cases  to  be  of  strong  wood, 
heavily  strapped  with  iron. 

Phenol  {carbolic  acid)  (C6H5OH). — Carbolic  acid  is  only  in  small 
demand  in  British  Malaya  as  a  disinfectant,  and  is  sold  chiefly 
through  the  dispensaries.  Soap  factories  do  not  make  carbolic  soap. 

Potassium  nitrate  {saltpeter)  (KNOa). — Saltpeter  is  used  in  con¬ 
siderable  quantities  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  for  preserving  meat 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives.  That  which  is  used  for  pre¬ 
serving  meat  must  be  pure.  Packing:  In  cases  of  112  pounds. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


297 


Potassium  nitrate  was  once  employed  in  the  tobacco  culture  of  the 
East  Coast  of  Sumatra,  but  this  use  has  been  discontinued.  It  can 
be  used  thus  to  advantage,  however,  price  and  quality  being  right. 

There  is  no  trade  of  any  consequence  in  potassium  nitrate  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  markets. 

Potassium  sulphate  (K2S04). — Potassium  sulphate  is  used  for  fer¬ 
tilizer  in  tobacco-seed  beds  and  in  final  planting,  mixed  with  am¬ 
monium  sulphate,  superphosphates,  and  artificial  guano.  Large 
quantities  are  used  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  the  Kesidency 
of  Sumatra  East  C-oast.  The  Deli  Maatschappij  requires  a  content 
of  47-J  per  cent  K20.  Packing :  In  100-kilo  bags. 

Sodium  'bicarbonate  (NaHC03). — There  is  a  large  consumption  of 
aerated  waters  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
number  of  factories  in  all  parts  of  the  colony.  Bicarbonate  of  soda 
is  used  by  all  of  these  factories  for  charging  water.  The  imports 
into  the  Netherlands  Indies  for  1918,  1919,  and  1920  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tom. 
24 
447 
1,115 
'  70 

85 
50 

Metric  tons. 

372 

461 

1,776 

3 

16 

2 

United  States . 

263 

412 

718 

154 

135 

Great  Britain . 

Japan . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,682 

1,791 

2,633 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

1,488 

194 

1,720 

70 

2,633 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  show  an  increase  in  1920  of 
56  per  cent  over  1918  and  47  per  cent  over  1919,  most  of  which  is  in 
favor  of  Great  Britain.  Packing:  In  wooden  barrels  of  1  hundred¬ 
weight  (112  pounds). 

In  British  Malaya  also  there  is  a  good  demand  for  bicarbonate  of 
soda  from  the  many  aerated- water  factories.  Brunner,  Mond  &  Co. 
and  the  United  Alkali  Co.  do  most  of  this  business.  Packing:  In 
casks  of  5  hundredweight  (560  pounds). 

Sodium  bisulphite  (NaTIS03). — Bisulphite  of  sodium  is  used  for 
bleaching  crepe  rubber  and  also  for  sheet  rubber  by  some  estates. 
Approximately  three-fourths  of  a  gram  is  used  for  every  150  grams 
of  dry  crepe  produced.  If  used  in  large  proportion  it  is  injurious 
to  the  rubber. 

There  is  no  way  of  knowing  how  much  of  this  chemical  is  used, 
but  the  trade  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  interest  American  manu¬ 
facturers.  The  larger  native  estates  in  British  Malaya  are  begin¬ 
ning  to  use  it,  the  large  European  estates  using  it  extensively. 

Quality :  60  per  cent  S02  and  not  to  contain  more  than  5  per  cent 
of  neutral  sodium  sulphite.  Packing:  In  air-tight  drums  of  56  and 
112  pounds  net. 

Sodium  carbonate  ( soda  ash)  (Na2C03). — Soda  ash  is  used  in 
British  Malaya  in  large  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  soap.  It 
comes  largely  from  England.  Brunner,  Mond  &  Co.  and  the  United 
Alkali  Co.  (English  companies)  are  the  principal  suppliers. 


298  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Quality:  58  per  cent.  Packing:  In  barrels  of  3  hundredweight 
(336  pounds)  and  5  hundredweight  (560  pounds). 

Sodium  hydroxide  {caustic  soda)  (NaOH). — Caustic  soda  is  used 
in  considerable  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  quinine  and  also  by 
the  manufacturers  of  soap,  and  to  a  large  extent  in  the  sugar  fac¬ 
tories.  The  Netherlands  Indies  imports  for  1913,  1917,  1918,  1919, 
and  1920  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 

1913 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1,039 

Metric  tons. 
20 

Metric  tons. 

3 

Metric  tons. 
17 

Metric  tons. 

280 

United  States . 

1,159 

134 

551 

1,524 

1,671 

England . 

1,521 

271 

942 

1,362 

Germanv . 

42 

Japan . 

199 

1,784 

10 

705 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

18 

30 

700 

330 

35 

All  other . 

13 

78 

740 

46 

169 

Total . 

2,633 

1,620 

4,049 

2,869 

4,222 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

1,977 

1,414 

2, 624 

2,240 

4,222 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

656 

206 

l' 425 

'629 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Before  the  war  the  trade  with  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  this 
chemical  was  held  by  England  and  the  Netherlands,  but  from  1917 
on  the  United  States  has  held  the  large  bulk  of  the  business,  the 
imports  from  Japan,  it  is  claimed,  being  reexports  of  American 
caustic  soda.  During  1920  the  United  States  held  first  place,  with 
38  per  cent  of  the  total  imports ;  England  second,  with  31  per  cent ; 
and  Japan  third,  with  16  per  cent.  Two  English  concerns  do  the 
larger  part  of  the  British  business.  They  trade-mark  their  product 
and  give  a  guaranty  of  the  quality. 

Various  strengths  of  caustic  soda  are  imported  into  the  markets  of 
the  Straits  Settlements.  The  British  manufacturers,  Brunner,  Mond 
&  Co.  and  the  United  Alkali  Co.,  supply  most  of  this  trade.  To 
secure  a  share  of  the  trade  in  British  Malaya  it  is  necessary  for 
American  manufacturers  to  pack  in  strong  export  drums  of  5  hun¬ 
dredweight  (560  pounds  net),  marked  with  the  quality  contained 
and  a  brand,  and  to  give  an  adequate  guaranty  of  the  quality  in 
addition  to  a  competitive  price. 

Qualities  in  British  Malaya  are  guaranteed  as  follows:  60  to  62 
per  cent,  70  to  72  per  cent,  72  to  74  per  cent,  74  to  76  per  cent,  and 
76  per  cent  quality  suitable  for  soap  making. 

The  trade  of  Java  requires  76  per  cent  pure  caustic  soda.  Pack¬ 
ing  :  In  strong  iron  drums  of  300  kilos  each. 

Sodium  nitrate  {Chile  saltpeter)  (NaNOs). — Chile  saltpeter  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  sulphate  of  ammonia  on  heavy  soils  when 
supplies  of  the  latter  are  not  obtainable.  In  dry  seasons  it  is  equal  to 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  but  when  there  are  heavy  rains  it  is  easily 
washed  away.  One  of  the  serious  disadvantages  of  its  use  is  that 
the  bags  are  liable  to  burn,  with  a  consequent  loss  of  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  the  chemical. 

Imports  of  this  chemical  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by 
countries,  during  the  period  1915-1920  have  been  as  follows : 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


299 


Countries. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

19201 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
10 

Metric  tons. 
25 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
49 

Metric  tons. 

4 

United  States . 

15,499 

Great  Britain  and  its  colonies.. 

41 

2 

7 

Japan . 

11 

15 

11 

2,504 

460 

609 

South  America . 

13,552 

1,249 

All  other . 

3 

4 

14 

Total . 

65 

46 

32 

16,066 

509 

17,361 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

60 

18 

25 

15,875 

191 

460 

17,361 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

5 

28 

7 

49 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  imports  in  1918  showed  a  large  increase  both  from  South 
America  and  from  Japan,  due  largely  to  the  difficulties  connected 
with  getting  a  supply  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  to  the  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  induce  one  of  the 
Royal  Dutch  Lines  to  operate  a  steamer  on  the  South  America  run. 
This  resulted  in  one  trip  being  made  by  the  above-mentioned  com¬ 
pany,  but  the  business  did  not  warrant  the  continuance  of  the  serv¬ 
ice  at  that  time.  The  imports  in  1919  fell  off  materially,  but  in 
1920  the  United  States  appears  as  the  origin  of  15,000  tons. 

Imports  of  sodium  nitrate  into  British  Malaya  are  of  little 
consequence,  as  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  preferred  as  a  fertilizer  by 
the  planters  of  the  Sumatra  East  Coast,  and  little  fertilizer  is  used 
in  the  plantations  of  the  peninsula. 

Sodium  silicate. — Sodium  silicate  is  used  in  the  soap  factories  of 
British  Malaya.  The  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  British 
manufacturers.  It  is  claimed  by  the  importers  that  the  American 
product  is  of  an  irregular  quality. 

Quality:  Suitable  for  soap  making.  Packing:  In  strong  export 
barrels  to  contain  5  hundredweight  (560  pounds). 

Sodium  sulphite  ( anhydrous  salt  N  a2S03 ;  crystallized 
Na2S03H20). — These  chemicals  are  used  as  anticoagulants  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  latex  forming  lumps  before  it  is  coagulated  in  the  factory. 
It  is  generally  issued  to  the  tappers  when  they  go  out  in  the  morning 
so  that  they  may  put  it  into  their  pails  as  the  latex  is  collected,  but 
some  estates  use  it  only  in  the  factory.  The  proportions  used  are 
about  as  follows:  20  per  cent  solution  of  crystallized  sulphite  or 
10  per  cent  solution  of  anhydrous  salt.  Six  cubic  centimeters  of 
either  solution  is  used  for  each  liter  of  latex.  No  fair  estimate  of 
the  total  consumption  can  be  made,  but  it  is  considerable. 

Quality:  Must  be  anhydrous  for  the  British  Malayan  trade. 
Packing:  In  air-tight  drums  of  56  and  112  pounds  net. 

Sulphur. — Large  quantities  of  sulphur  are  used  in  the  sugar  in¬ 
dustry  and  in  making  sulphuric  acid  in  the  factories  at  Balikpapan 
(Borneo)  and  at  Soerabaya.  The  natives  of  Java  collect  sulphur  in 
many  of  the  craters  of  the  volcanoes,  but  the  collection  and  trans¬ 
portation  involve  an  amount  of  labor  that  limits  the  quantities 
obtained  to  small  proportions. 


300  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Imports  of  sulphur  into  the  Netherlands  Indies,  by  countries,  for 
1913,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  were  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 
1, 149 
80 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

10 

1,258 

United  States . 

217 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

26 

1,562 

210 

Italy . 

207 

2,861 

1,429 

3,224 

Japan . 

3,058 

7 

2 

Singapore . 

All  other . 

77 

8 

3 

Total . 

3, 104 

3, 067 

3,293 

5,924 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

3,104 

2,343 

724 

1,437 

1,856 

5,924 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  imports  into  the  Outer  Possessions  were  all  for  Balikpapan 
except  a  few  tons.  The  Balikpapan  factory  commenced  operations 
in  a  small  way  in  1916  and  has  developed  to  considerable  propor¬ 
tions.  The  increase  of  consumption  is  supplied  from  local  produc¬ 
tion  of  sulphur  and  a  larger  import  of  sulphur  products.  Before 
the  war  the  chief  source  of  supply  was  Italy  and  its  trade  revived  in 
1920.  In  the  latter  year  over  1,000  tons  came  from  the  United 
States,  but  Japan  held  the  first  place. 

Sulphur  (sublimed  quality)  is  imported  into  British  Malaya  in 
cases  containing  112  one-pound  packages.  It  is  used  by  the  rubber 
estates  in  combination  with  arsenic,  lime,  and  sugar  for  killing  white 
ants.  The  quality  is  described  as  “  sublimed  flowers  of  sulphur.” 

Sulphur  dioxide  (S02). — Sulphur  dioxide  is  used  in  small  quanti¬ 
ties  in  the  ice  factories  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  British 
Malaya. 

Sulphuric  acid  (H2S04). — Sulphuric  acid  is  used  in  some  rubber- 
estate  factories  for  coagulating  latex  (but  only  to  a  small  extent), 
for  making  carbonic-acid  gas,  and  for  charging  accumulator  batter¬ 
ies.  as  well  as  for  general  purposes  to  which  it  is  put  in  other  coun¬ 
tries.  There  is  one  factory  at  Soerabaya  and  another  at'  Balikpapan. 

The  imports  of  this  product  into  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  1918, 
1919,  and  1920  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Countries  of  origin  and  desti¬ 
nation. 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Technical. 

Pure. 

Technical. 

Pure. 

Technical. 

Pure. 

Netherlands: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

3 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
635 

Metric  tons. 

14 

8 

United  States: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

1 

3 

4 

9 

261 

Outer  Possessions . 

6 

18 

19 

Great  Britain: 

Java  and  Madoera _ _  - 

3 

Singapore  and  Penang: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

3 

15 

Outer  Possessions . 

9 

17 

17 

Japan: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

474 

29 

859 

29 

582 

39 

Outer  Possessions . 

6 

4 

4 

All  other: 

Java  and  Madoera . 

5 

1 

Outer  possessions . 

10 

2 

2 

Total . 

506 

32 

913 

38 

1,540 

62 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

475 

32 

872 

38 

1,  498 

62 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

31 

41 

42 

. 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


301 


In  spite  of  an  expected  increase  in  local  production,  the  imports  of 
the  raw  product  for  1920  (for  Java  and  Madoera  only)  show  an  in¬ 
crease  of  64  per  cent  over  the  total  1919  imports.  The  Netherlands 
supplied  42  per  cent  of  the  total;  Japan,  38  per  cent;  and  the  United 
States,  17  per  cent. 

In  British  Malaya  sulphuric  acid  is  used  largely  for  making 
carbonic-acid  gas  and  to  a  small  extent  for  coagulating  rubber  latex. 

Quality:  66°  Baume.  Packing:  In  stone  jars  or  carboys  of  100 
pounds  each,  two  to  the  crate,  crates  to  be  strongly  made  for  export 
and  heavily  strapped;  also  in  44-pound  jars,  packed  two  to  the  crate, 
in  200-pound  drums. 

Sulphurous  acid  (H2S03)  in  solution. — Sulphurous  acid  in  solu¬ 
tion  is  made  in  the  chemical  factory  at  Soerabaya.  There  are  no 
imports  of  consequence  into  the  Netherlands  Indies.  This  product 
is  not  used  in  the  industries  of  British  Malaya  and  is  imported  in 
small  quantities  only  for  the  dispensary  trade. 

Superphosphates  (Ca(H2P04)2)  and  double  superphosphates. — 
The  imports  of  these  chemicals  are  listed  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  customs  returns  as  phosphates  and  superphosphates.  The 
imports,  by  countries,  for  1918,  1919,  and  1920  were  as  follows: 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

Netherlands . 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 

Metric  tons. 
1,105 
1, 260 
852 

United  States . 

311 
5, 743 

679 

4 

3 

1,753 

634 

Japan . 

Singapore . 

All  otter . 

395 

Total . 

6,737 

2,390 

3,612 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

5, 539 
1, 198 

1, 655 
735 

3,612 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Prior  to  1918  the  imports  of  the  chemicals  just  mentioned  were 
not  shown  separately. 

The  soils  of  the  Residencies  of  Bantam,  Cheribon,  Pekalongan, 
Semarang,  Rembang,  Madoera,  and  the  northern  part  of  Soerabaya 
are  particularly  deficient  in  phosphates,  and  considerable  quantities 
of  this  fertilizer  are  used  in  those  districts. 

Double  superphosphates  are  used  in  J ava  for  the  tobacco-seed  beds, 
as  well  as  in  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra,  the  purchases  for  the  latter 
district  being  made  about  July  1  of  each  year. 

In  Soerabaya  there  is  a  factory  making  superphosphates  from 
bones,  through  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  produce  double  superphosphates.  The  production  is  not 
large. 

Superphosphates  and  double  superphosphates  are  imported  into 
the  Straits  Settlements  ports  principally  for  resale  to  the  East 
Coast  district  of  Sumatra.  Very  little  of  these  chemicals  is  used 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Quality:  Superphosphates,  19  per  cent  phosphoric  acid;  double 
superphosphates,  39  to  40  per  cent  phosphoric  acid.  Packing:  In 
double  bags  containing  approximately  200  pounds  net. 


302  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Tar. — There  are  considerable  quantities  of  coal  tar  imported  into 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  wood  tar  is  imported  to  a  smaller 
extent.  The  imports  of  coal  tar  and  wood  tar  in  1915,  1919,  and 
1920  are  shown  below. 


Countries. 

1915 

1919 

1920 

Coal  tar. 

Wood  tar. 

Coal  tar. 

Wood  tar. 

Coal  tar. 

W  ood  tar. 

Netherlands . 

United  States..  . 

Liters. 
69, 000 
14,900 
12, 7t0 
700 

Liters. 
13, 800 

Liters. 
5,300 
4,  OCO 
18,300 

Liters. 
1,300 
1, 4C0 

Liters. 

41.200 
6,100 

24.200 
4,500 
1,300 

33,509 
4, 200 
81, 700 
1,300 

Liters. 

3,500 

400 

300 

21,100 

5,100 

Great  Britain . 

100 
7G0 
500 
800 
1, 000 

Sweden  and  Norway . 

Germany . 

4,600 

Japan . 

41, 400 
62,000 
19, 80  0 
1, 100 

4, 600 
400 
3,900 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Australia . 

39,  500 

700 

All  other . 

700 

200 

Total . 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

137, 500 

17, 100 

151,900 

16, 200 

198, 000 

31,100 

76, 600 
60, 900 

11,600 

5,500 

81,400 

70,500 

15,400 

800 

198,000 

31, 100 

Very  little  tar  is  used  as  a  binder  on  the  roadways,  largely  because 
of  the  high  cost,  but  the  various  residency  governments  are  faced 
with  the  problem  of  providing  some  sort  of  an  effective  binder  that 
will  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  roads  by  the  combination  of 
speeding  automobiles  and  torrential  rains.  American  producers  of 
road-building  material  will  find  the  residency  engineers  to  be  inter¬ 
ested  in  improved  methods  of  road  building,  although  the  present 
state  of  the  government  finance  may  not  permit  of  their  placing 
orders  now. 

Coal  tar  is  used  in  the  prevention  and  cure  of  diseases  of  rubber 

trees. 

In  British  Malaya  tar  is  used  in  considerable  quantities  for  ships, 
as  a  binder  for  road  metaling,  for  painting  laborers’  quarters,  and 
for  treating  rubber  trees.  Some  Swedish  or  “  Stockholm  ”  tar  is 
imported,  but  the  imports  are  mostly  from  Great  Britain — “Glas¬ 
gow”  coal  tar,  packed  in  barrels  of  4f  to  5  hundredweight  (532  to 
560  pounds).  Regarding  this  product,  an  importer  is  quoted  as 
follows : 

The  quality  should  be  thick  and  have  a  large  covering  power,  with  great 
consistency.  During  the  war  there  were  some  trial  shipments  imported  from 
America  and  from  Australia,  but  these  did  not  approach  the  “  Glasgow  ”  re¬ 
fined  coal  tar  in  quality,  which  is  most  suitable  for  ships’  use.  The  price 
varies  from  37  to  45  shillings  per  barrel  c.  i.  f.  Singapore  or  Penang.  All  coal- 
tar  barrels  should  have  a  brass  label,  showing  the  net  contents,  and  should 
bear  a  brand  or  trade-mark. 

A  coal  tar  is  produced  by  the  gas  works  at  Singapore,  but  this 
quality  is  not  suitable  for  use  by  ships.  It  is  sold  to  the  rubber 
estates  for  treating  trees,  painting  coolie  quarters,  and  other  estate 

uses. 

The  tar  used  in  British  Malaya  for  road  making  is  a  trade-marked 
quality,  known  as  Tarco,  and  comes  from  England.  It  is  packed 
in  the  same  way  as  coal  tar.  Asphalt  tar  for  road  making  is  im¬ 
ported  in  solid  blocks,  packed  in  cases,  and  is  reboiled  locally.  This 
effects  a  saving  in  transport  and  breakage. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


303 


Pitch  comes  chiefly  from  England  in  barrels  of  from  4|  to  5 
hundredweight  (532  to  560  pounds). 

Tartaric  acid  (C4H606). — Tartaric  acid  is  used  in  British  Malaya 
in  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters,  but  not  in  large  quantities. 
Packing:  In  1-hundredweight  kegs  and  in  1-pound  tins  in  cases. 

Turpentine. — Turpentine  is  imported  into  British  Malaya  in  small 
but  fairly  regular  quantities,  according  to  information  gathered  from 
the  trade,  and  finds  its  largest  sale  through  the  ship  chandlers.  The 
petroleum  companies  are  putting  out  a  turpentine  substitute  called 
“  turpene,”  which  serves  many  of  the  purposes  to  which  turpentine 
is  adapted. 

CHEMICALS  FOR  COMBATING  DISEASES  OF  RUBBER  TREES. 

For  combating  the  diseases  of  rubber  trees  the  following  are  a  few 
of  the  preparations  used : 

Carbolineum  (soluble),  or  Carbolineum  Plantarium. 

Carbolineum  Heveaum — an  English  product. 

Jeyes’  Fluid — the  trade  name  of  a  British-made  disinfectant  widely  used 
throughout  the  Orient. 

Izal — also  the  trade  name  of  a  British  product. 

Brunoleum — the  trade  name  of  a  British  product. 

Solignum — trade  name. 

Creoline  is  a  trade  name  for  a  preparation  used  on  the  rubber  estates  for 
treating  the  diseased  branches  of  the  rubber  trees.  There  are  considerable 
quantities  used.  It  comes  largely  from  Australia  and  is  packed  in  wooden 
barrels  containing  180  kilos.  It  has  been  imported  in  tins  packed  in  cases, 
but  is  said  not  to  ship  well  in  this  packing. 

The  curative  qualities  in  these  products  are  the  phenols  and  cresols 
they  contain.  When  these  chemicals  are  for  preventive  purposes 
a  5  per  cent  solution  is  used,  and  when  for  curing  diseases  a  solution 
of  from  10  to  30  per  cent,  a  fair  average  being  20  per  cent.  Of  late 
years  prevention  and  cure  are  receiving  more  attention  than  for¬ 
merly,  and  considerable  quantities  of  these  chemicals  are  used  an¬ 
nually.  Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  cut  out  diseased  trees,  but 
to-day  thinning  out  is  more  carefully  done  and  planters  go  to  great 
lengths  to  save  good  producing  trees. 

PAPER  TRADE. 

Events  of  the  past  few  years  have  developed  a  trade  in  printing 
papers  in  Java  that  is  very  important.  A  number  of  papers  in  the 
native  languages  have  become  established  and  efforts  are  constantly 
being  made  to  establish  new  ones.  Many  of  these  efforts  are  without 
success,  but  they  are  indicative  of  an  awakening  of  native  thought 
that  means  the  eventual  success  of  many  new  native-language  pub¬ 
lications. 

There  is  a  demand  for  art  papers  and  the  finer  account-book 
papers,  but  this  is  in  a  very  small  proportion  to  the  trade  as  a  whole. 

American  printing  trade  publications  may  be  found  in  almost  every 
important  printing  office  in  Netherlands  Indies. 

NEWSPRINT  PAPER. 

The  following  statistics  show  the  import  of  white  newsprint  paper 
into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by  countries,  for  1913  (the  last  full 


304  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


pre-war  year),  1918,  and  1919  and  into  Java  and  Madoera  only  for 
1920  and  the  first  11  months  of  1921  (1  florin =$0,402  mint  par 
U.  *S.) : 


Countries. 

t 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (11 
months 
only).i 

Netherlands . 

Florins. 

93,000 

Florins. 
40,000 
358, 000 
4,000 

Florins. 
72, 000 
628,000 
22, 000 
16,000 
106, 000 
9,000 
97, 000 
11,000 

Florins. 
822,000 
432, 000 
48, 000 
31,000 
526, 000 
14, 000 
398, 000 
133,000 

Florins. 

323,000 

237,000 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

10,000 
30, 000 

Germany . 

52,000 

203,000 

Scandinavia . 

13, 000 
46, 000 
769,  COO 
30, 000 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

8,000 

Japan . 

94,000 

2,000 

All  other . 

10, 000 

Total . 

151,000 

1, 260, 000 

961, 000 

2,404,000 

911, 000 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

138,000 
13, 000 

1,231,000 
29, 000 

864,000 
97, 000 

2,404, 000 

911,000 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


During  the  war  years  the  number  of  newspapers  printed  in  the 
colony  has  increased  greatly,  as  well  as  the  consumption  of  paper, 
and  for  this  reason  the  pre-war  figures  are  no  criterion  by  which  to 
judge  the  trade  of  the  future.  Before  the  war  the  Netherlands  was 
the  country  of  export  for  most  of  the  supplies  for  the  colony,  but  as 
European  products  were  cut  off  most  of  the  supplies  were  drawn 
from  the  United  States  and  Japan.  Owing  to  the  reopening  of 
European  sources  of  supply,  the  figures  for  1920  and  1921  show  a 
return  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  trade  to  European  markets.  The 
percentages  for  1921  up  to  November  were  as  follows:  Netherlands, 
35  per  cent;  United  States,  26  per  cent;  Scandinavian  countries,  22 
per  cent;  Japan,  10  per  cent;  and  Germany,  6  per  cent. 

The  section  on  advertising  shows  to  some  extent  the  volume  of 
business  in  newsprint  paper  in  British  Malaya.  This  is  all  bought 
in  flats,  as  there  are  no  presses  equipped  to  use  roll  paper. 

WRITING  AND  BOOK  PAPERS. 

The  appended  statistics  show  the  imports  of  writing  paper  for 
the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  by  countries,  for  1913. 
1918,  and  1919  and  for  Java  and  Madoera  only  for  1920  and  the  first 
11  months  of  1921 : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920 1 

1921  (11 
months 
only).1 

N  ether  lands . 

Florins. 
457, 000 

Florins. 
55, 000 
270,000 
31,000 

Florins. 
570, 000 
658,000 
32,000 

Florins. 

2,218,000 

573,000 

84,000 

120,000 

181,000 

30,000 

17,000 

80,000 

37,000 

Florins. 
1, 584, 000 
340,000 
112,000 
90,000 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

8,000 

114,000 

Germany  and  Austria . 

Scandinavia . 

79,000 

149, 000 

Other  European . 

5,000 

36,000 

129,000 

5,000 

20,000 

63,000 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Japan . 

79,000 
1,  398,000 
83,000 

60,000 
324, 000 
34,000 

All  other . . . 

13,000 

Total . 

633,000 

1, 995, 000 

1,827,000 

3,340,000 

2,349,000 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

540,000 

93,000 

1, 801, 000 
194,000 

1, 586, 000 
241,000 

3, 340, 000 

2,349,000 

*  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


305 


Before  the  war  the  Netherlands  handled  most  of  this  business, 
buying  from  all  the  European  markets,  but  during  the  war  most 
of  the  buying  was  done  by  the  colonial  branches  from  the  most  con¬ 
venient  sources  of  supply,  which  were  the  United  States  and  Japan. 
In  1918  the  Netherlands  supplied  but  3  per  cent  of  the  total  imports, 
while  Japan  supplied  70  per  cent  and  the  United  States  13  per  cent. 
In  1919  the  Netherlands  regained  a  good  part  of  the  business,  having 
31  per  cent  of  the  total;  the  United  States  supplied  36  per  cent, 
Japan  18  per  cent,  and  Scandinavia  8  per  cent. 

The  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  only  for  11  months  of  1921 
show  a  greater  reaction  to  European  sources  of  supply.  The  Nether¬ 
lands  as  a  country  of  origin  of  shipments  supplied  67  per  cent  of 
the  total,  the  United  States  15  per  cent,  and  Great  Britain  5  per  cent, 
while  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  u Other  European  countries”  sup¬ 
plied  5  per  cent. 

In  this  colony  very  little  book  paper  is  bought,  writing  paper 
being  used  for  most  of  the  books  published.  The  principal  require¬ 
ments  are  for  catalogues,  periodicals,  yearly  company  reports  and 
other  commercial  work,  and  for  Government  reports. 

Most  of  the  European  writing  papers  are  finished  with  a  prepara¬ 
tion  of  clay,  which  makes  a  heavy  paper,  but  this  finish  is  not  durable, 
and  there  is  considerable  trouble  in  using  paper  of  this  kind,  as 
the  dust  clogs  the  type.  Since  American  writing  paper  has  been 
imported  the  printers  have  learned  to  appreciate  its  superior  quality. 

The  British  printers,  unlike  the  Dutch,  use  book  paper  for  their 
books.  Outside  of  Government  publications,  the  production  of  books 
in  British  Malaya  is  limited. 

OLD  NEWSPAPERS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  old  newspapers,  hJ 
countries,  for  the  Netherlands  Indies  during  1913,  1918,  1919,  and 
1920,  the  latter  year  for  Java  and  Madoera  only  (1  florin =$0,402 
mint  par  U.  S.)  : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

Netherlands .  . 

Florins. 

87,000 

Florins. 

2,000 

511,000 

Florins. 

11,000 

474,000 

28,000 

Florins. 
80, 000 
1,535,000 
58, 000 

United  States . 

Great  Britain .  . 

390, 000 
5,000 

Germany . 

Other  European .  . 

25,000 
165, 000 
44, 000 
15,000 

33,000 

107,000 

51,000 

44,000 

1,000 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

147,000 

54,000 

24,000 

44,000 

2,000 

2,000 

Hongkong . 7.7 .  . 

Japan . 

Australia . 

73,000 

13,000 

All  other . 

4,666 

Total . 77 . 

715, 000 

639,000 

766,000 

1,909,000 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

546, 000 
169,000 

520,000 
119, 000 

579, 000 
187,000 

1,909,000 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  trade  in  old  newspapers  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  was 
held  principally  by  Great  Britain  before  the  war,  that  country  sup¬ 
plying  direct  54  per  cent  in  1913,  while  Penang  and  Singapore  sup¬ 
plied  21  per  cent  and  Australia  10  per  cent.  In  1918  there  was  no 


306  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

import  from  Great  Britain  and  only  small  amounts  from  the  Brit¬ 
ish  colonies,  while  the  United  States,  which  did  not  figure  in  the 
returns  in  1913,  supplied  80  per  cent;  in  1919,  62  per  cent;  and  in 
1920  (for  Java  and  Madoera  only),  80  per  cent.  The  available  re¬ 
turns  for  Java  and  Madoera  for  11  months  of  1921  credit  the  Nether¬ 
lands  with  20  per  cent  of  the  total  imports,  the  United  States  with 
56  per  cent,  Singapore  with  13  per  cent,  Great  Britain  with  2  per 
cent,  and  Scandinavia  with  8  per  cent  of  the  total  imports. 

In  the  early  part  of  1919  there  was  some  complaint  from  the  im¬ 
porters  as  to  the  contents  of  the  bales,  it  being  claimed  that  torn 
papers  and  magazines  were  included  in  some  of  the  bales,  but  later 
inquiry  showed  that  they  were  coming  forward  as  ordered  and  there 
is  a  general  satisfaction  with  the  quality,  which  is  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  European  imports. 

The  leading  general  importers  are  the  principal  dealers  in  old 
newspapers,  especially  those  dealing  in  food  supplies. 

In  British  Malaya  there  is  a  large  consumption  of  old  newspapers, 
which  are  used  by  the  Chinese  storekeepers  principally  for  wrapping 
purposes.  Old  American  newspapers  are  sold  on  a  par  with  stock 
from  England.  The  trade  recognizes  the  following  qualities :  “  White, 
Daily  Mail  quality  ” ;  “  white,  similar  to  Daily  Mail  ” ;  “  pink,  similar 
to  Daily  Mail  ” ;  “  mixed,  similar  to  Daily  Mail  ” ;  and  “  white  Ameri¬ 
can,  Sun,  Globe,  and  similar  qualities.”  Packing:  5  hundredweight 
(560  pounds),  canvassed  bales. 

The  English  houses  usually  pack  with  four  2-inch  iron  hoops, 
painted  red,  while  American  paper  is  packed  with  six  lj-inch  iron 
hoops,  which  in  every  instance  should  be  painted  red.  There  is  a 
preference  for  the  English  method.  Messrs.  W.  Bowater,  England, 
pack  their  “  Sun  ”  and  “  Ship  ”  brands  with  five  2-inch  hoops, 
painted  red.  This  is  preferred  to  all  other  packing.  The  style  of 
packing  constitutes  a  brand  to  some  extent. 

PRINTERS’  AND  LITHOGRAPHERS’  SUPPLIES. 

INKS. 

American  printing  inks  have  won  a  place  in  the  printing  trades 
of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  attention 
should  insure  to  American  manufacturers  a  permanent  share  of  the 
business.  As  in  other  countries,  news  inks  constitute  the  greatest 
part  of  the  requirements.  The  larger  newspapers  import  their  inks, 
as  well  as  their  paper,  but  the  smaller  papers,  including  the  native 
and  Chinese  press,  buy  through  the  jobbers. 

Book  inks  are  the  next  in  volume  of  business  done.  During  the 
past  few  years  the  printers  have  had  to  use  such  inks  as  they  could 
get  most  conveniently,  but  there  is  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  more 
important  shops  to  get  inks  better  suited  to  this  climate  and  to  the 
types  of  work  they  are  called  upon  to  do.  Much  of  the  bookwork 
done  by  the  west  Java  shops  is  catalogues  for  the  commercial  houses 
and  for  the  Government,  as  the  State  printing  establishment 
is  not  large  enough  to  handle  all  of  its  printing.  Very  little  art 
work  is  done,  and  there  is  but  a  small  demand  for  the  finer  grades 
of  black  inks,  but  there  is  an  opportunity  to  develop  a  demand  for 
special  inks  for  special  work.  One  of  the  leading  printers  recently 
said  that  they  have  been  far  too  busy  taking  care  of  the  work  that 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


307 


was  forced  upon  them  to  attempt* to  develop  a  demand  for  fine  work, 
but  the  time  is  coming  when  a  better  class  of  printing  will  be  required. 

Color  work  has  not  been  developed  to  any  extent,  three-color  work 
being  about  the  maximum  of  achievement  in  color  combinations. 
Good  inks  are  wanted,  but  special  shades  and  qualities  for  art  work 
are  not  yet  in  demand. 

Except  for  a  few  publications  for  the  Government  no  fine  halftone 
work  is  done,  screens  of  150  lines  being  the  finest  used  by  the  photo¬ 
engravers.  Halftone  inks  are  used  for  some  of  the  monthly  publica¬ 
tions  which  are  printed  on  imitation  art  paper. 

Lithographing  inks  are  used  in  the  full  range  of  standard  colors 
by  the  few  lithographing  plants  in  the  colony.  One  company  has  a 
plant  for  lithographing  on  tin,  after  which  the  colors  are  baked  in. 
This  process  requires  a  special  ink.  There  are  no  plants  in  the 
colony  equipped  to  print  personal  cards  from  engraved  copper 
plates.  The  Dutch  custom  calls  for  lithographed  cards,  and  an  extra 
glossy  black  ink  is  required  for  this  purpose.  The  use  of  posters  in 
advertising  is  beginning  to  be  understood,  and  it  may  be  expected 
that  there  will  be  an  increase  in  the  demand  for  lithographing  inks. 

TYPE,  AND  LINOTYPE  AND  STEREOTYPE  METAL. 

The  Dutch  type  base  is  higher  and  their  point  unit  is  larger  than 
the  American  standard.  Dutch  printers  are  close  readers  of  Ameri¬ 
can  printers’  journals  and  American  type  faces  have  found  favor 
with  them,  but  the  unwillingness  of  American  founders  to  cast  these 
faces  on  the  European  bases  has  prevented  the  development  of  trade 
in  this  line. 

There  is  no  market  for  old  type  in  the  colony  and  no  means  of 
having  it  recast.  Printers  always  have  a  surplus  of  old  type,  and 
those  using  Linotypes  or  Intertypes  build  up  a  satisfactory  metal 
from  them  by  the  addition  of  antimony.  There  is  some  Linotype 
metal  imported  from  America  through  Idolland  and  -also  from 
Australia. 

Old  type  metal  is  used  for  stereotyping. 

Composition  for  rollers. — Local  Chinese  in  Batavia  make  a  very 
satisfactory  composition,  but  their  output  is  not  nearly  sufficient  to 
supply  the  demand.  Composition  is  imported  from  Holland,  Ger¬ 
many,  England,  and  America. 

Photo-engravers ’  supplies. — The  use  of  halftone  and  line  engrav¬ 
ings  is  growing  in  this  colony  and  the  trade  is  well  worth  catering  to. 
The  larger  shops  that  already  have  photo-engraving  plants  expect 
to  enlarge  them  on  more  modern  lines,  and  many  of  the  smaller 
shops  are  planning  to  install  halftone  equipment. 

Zinc  and  copper  plates  are  bought  either  direct  or  through  im¬ 
porters  catering  to  the  printing  trade,  and  the  chemical  houses  sup¬ 
ply  the  necessary  chemicals. 

In  British  Malaya  printers’  supplies  are  handled  either  direct  to 
the  printer  or  through  the  regular  importing  houses.  There  are 
several  fairly  important  units  in  the  printing  trade  and  many  minor 
shops,  usually  operated  by  Chinese.  The  equipment  is  not  up  to 
date  and  the  requirements"  of  the  public  are  not  exacting.  British 
suppliers  get  much  of  the  trade.  One  American  company  does  a  fair 
business  in  supplies  and  in  type  made  on  a  monotype  casting  unit. 


19878°— 23 - 21 


308  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

This  company  is  in  a  position  to  extend  this  phase  of  its  business 
with  the  cooperation  of  American  manufacturers. 

AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 

HAND  TOOLS. 

USE  OF  THE  PATCHOEL  OR  CHUNKOEL. 

Besides  the  native  plow,  the  natives  of  Java  and  Madoera  and 
wherever  any  degree  of  development  in  agriculture  has  been  reached 
in  the  Outer  Possessions  use  the  “  patchoel  ”  or  “  chunkoel  ”  for  turn¬ 
ing  the  soil.  Almost  every  male  adult  of  the  agricultural  population 
and  most  of  the  women  own  one,  as  well  as  an  “  arit  ”  and  a  “  piso 
blati  ”  or  a  knife  of  some  other  pattern. 

The  leading  hardware  merchants  list  nine  or  ten  patterns  of  the 
patchoel  or  chunkoel.  The  patterns  vary  according  to  the  type  of 
work  to  be  done,  the  kind  of  soil  to  be  worked,  and  the  strength  of 
the  native  or  Chinese  using  them.  In  eastern  Java  the  pattern  most 
commonly  used  is  240  millimeters  (9.45  inches)  in  height  and  195 
millimeters  (7.68  inches)  wide.  The  usual  weight  of  patchoel  for 
men  is  2  kilos,  while  that  for  the  women  weighs  about  1J  kilos.  Other 
types  are  used  in  the  tobacco  fields  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  where  Chi¬ 
nese  are  largely  employed.  There  are  patchoels  for  the  heavy  clay 
soils  of  the  sugar  estates,  another  type  for  the  railways,  and  a  special 
type  for  the  Government’s  tin  mines.  The  natives  of  central  Java 
make  a  patchoel  of  wood,  over  which  they  fit  a  steel  cutting  edge. 

On  first  consideration  it  would  appear  that  quantity  production 
of  patchoels  could  be  developed  on  a  large  scale,  but  on  going  further 
into  the  question  it  is  apparent  that  there  is  much  to  modify  this  first 
judgment. 

Before  the  war  Carl  Schlieper,  a  German,  did  the  most  of  the  busi¬ 
ness  in  patchoels,  both  in  Java  and  in  the  Outer  Possessions.  His 
“  eye  brand  ”  had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  market,  and  when  the 
war  cut  off  his  supplies  from  Germany  these  patchoels  were  made  by 
hand  in  the  small  blacksmith  shops  throughout  the  country.  His 
competitors  saw  an  opportunity  to  get  this  very  desirable  business, 
and  the  large  machinery  importing  house  of  Lindeteves  Stovis  adver-. 
tised  widely  the  “  carabao  head  ”  brand,  while  others  have  introduced 
brands.  Carl  Schlieper,  however,  was  busy  organizing  the  native 
blacksmith  shops  throughout  Java.  He  got  iron  from  some  place 
and  held  part  of  his  trade  together.  American  manufacturers  have 
been  making  some  patchoels  on  order  from  the  jobbers  in  Java,  and 
their  product  has  been  satisfactory  in  most  cases,  according  to  the 
importers.  This  business  is  large  enough  to  attract  American  manu¬ 
facturers,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  satisfactory  business  could  be  de¬ 
veloped  in  connection  with  Dutch  importers  in  Java  or  with  Ameri¬ 
can  houses  having  branches  there.  Three  and  four  tined  patchoel 
forks  are  also  used  in  some  cultures  where  the  soil  is  light. 

ALANG  ALANG  FORKS,  ARITS,  AND  CHOPPING  KNIVES. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  agriculture  in  the  tropical  Orient  is  the 
“  alang  alang  ”  grass,  called  “  lalang  ”  in  British  Malaya  and 
“  cogon  ”  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  This  grass  springs  up  wherever 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


309 


a  constant  fight  is  not  waged  against  it,  and  the  u  alang  alang  ”  fork 
is  the  tool  used  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  fighting  this  weed.  The 
“  alang  alang  ”  fork  is  similar  to  a  spading  fork.  It  has  a  D  handle 
and  from  three  to  four  square  prongs — generally  four. 

The  “  arit  ”  is  used  in  various  forms  throughout  the  agricultural 
districts  of  the  archipelago  for  cutting  grass. 

There  are  several  forms  of  chopping  knives  (“  kapmessen  ”)  used 
in  cutting  sugar  cane,  pruning  tea  and  coffee  bushes,  and  in  other 
light  chopping  work.  This  trade  is  large  enough  to  interest  Ameri¬ 
can  manufacturers. 

Pruning  and  grafting  tools  are  in  considerable  demand  from  the 
rubber,  tea,  coffee,  and  cinchona  estates.  The  various  names  by 
which  these  implements  are  known  and  their  English  equivalents  are 
as  follows :  “  Snoeimessen,”  pruning  knives ;  “  tuinscharen,”  garden¬ 
ing  shears ;  “  snoeischaren,”  pruning  shears ;  “  oculeermessen,  graft¬ 
ing  knives ;  “  hegscharen,”  hedge  shears ;  and  “  dichtvouwbare  boom- 
snoeizagen,”  folding  tree-pruning  saws.  Many  of  these  tools  are 
similar  to  those  used  in  American  horticulture.  During  the  period  of 
the  war  American  manufacturers  were  called  upon  for  supplies. 
German  products  are  now  in  the  market,  and  it  will  be  necessary  for 
American  manufacturers  to  make  competitive  prices  in  order  to 
regain  a  share  of  the  trade. 

THE  CHUNKOL  OF  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  chunkol  (patchoel  in  Java;  chunkoel  in  Sumatra)  is  the  hoe 
used  by  agriculturists  in  one  form  or  another  throughout  the  Orient. 
The  trade  of  British  Malaya  is  largely  for  use  in  the  mines,  where 
a  4-pound  tool  10J  by  7  inches  is  used,  with  either  a  straight  or 
curved  edge,  and  fitted  with  a  D  eye.  These  are  packed  in  barrels, 
200  to  the  barrel. 

The  Sumatra  trade  takes  from  Penang  a  5-pound  chunkol  for  use 
by  the  men,  with  a  cutting  edge  11^  by  7  inches,  13^  inches  from  edge 
of  the  top  of  D  eye,  and  a  3J-pound  chunkol  for  use  by  the  women, 
with  a  cutting  edge  8  by  6  inches,  10-J  inches  from  edge  to  top 
of  D  eye. 

Scythes  are  used  extensively  in  British  Malaya  for  cutting  lawns 
and  for  clearing  lalang  (tiger  grass)  lands.  There  is  a  steady 
demand  for  38,  40,  and  41  inch  blades  with  sheaths,  complete,  the 
bulk  of  the  business  being  for  the  40  and  42  inch  class.  One  indent 
seen  read  as  follows : 

Eelepliant  brand  patent  riveted  scythe  blades,  each  blade  wrapped  in  paper, 
with  12  blades  wrapped  in  straw  and  bundled.  Packed  one  dozen  blades  in 
strong,  wooden  case,  reinforced  and  iron  strapped  for  export. 

The  importer  stated  that  the  United  States  can  not  compete,  be¬ 
cause  neither  the  packing  nor  the  price  is  right. 

American  manufacturers  desiring  to  compete  for  this  trade  should 
work  out  specifications  for  packing  that  will  resist  the  maximum 
strain  the  cases  will  be  required  to  resist,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  meet 
packing  requirements,  when  exchange  and  production  costs  permit 
of  their  entering  the  market. 

OTHER  TOOLS. 

Stamped  steel  strap  shovels,  with  D  handles,  both  round  and 
square  points,  in  No.  2  and  No.  3  sizes,  are  required  in  British  Malaya. 


3]0  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

American  patterns  are  too  good  and  too  expensive  for  the  trade. 
American  manufacturers  bidding  for  this  trade  will  find  it  to  their 
advantage  to  study  the  British-made  shovel  and  bid  on  an  equivalent 
article.  British  manufacturers  are  supplying  the  requirements  at 
present. 

Railroad  picks  and  railroad  tamping  picks  of  6  pounds  weight  are 
also  required.  These  are  at  present  coming  from  England. 

D-handle  strapped  digging  forks  of  three,  four,  and  five  tines 
find  a  small  but  steady  sale,  especially  through  the  Penang  market 
for  sale  in  Sumatra.  Supplies  come  from  England,  and  latterly 
from  Germany. 

The  use  of  agricultural  implements  in  native  agriculture  is  lim¬ 
ited  to  the  plow  and  harrow.  There  are  many  types  of  native  plows, 
developed  under  the  various  racial,  climatic,  and  soil  conditions, 
but,  unlike  the  plow  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  they  all  have  two  han¬ 
dles.  A  British  manufacturer  has  developed  a  small  two-handled 
steel  plow  for  this  trade,  but  has  made  very  little  progress  in  in¬ 
troducing  it. 

The  plow  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  turning  the  rice  fields 
which  have  lain  under  water  long  enough  for  the  soil  to  become  soft. 

The  harrows  used  by  the  natives  are  made  of  wood,  generally  by 
the  agriculturists  themselves. 

In  dry  farming  the  soil  is  turned  by  the  chunkoel  or  patchoel,  be¬ 
fore  described. 

Some  of  the  sugar  estates  that  have  been  experimenting  with  trac¬ 
tors  are  using  American  mold  and  disk  plows,  harrows,  rollers,  and 
ditchers. 

TRACTORS. 

The  “Sugar  Syndicate”  of  Java  is  an  association  which  included 
all  of  the  mills  operating  in  Java  in  1921.  As  this  industry  is  or¬ 
ganized  the  milling  companies  are  also  the  growers  of  the  cane. 

Although  Java  is  credited  in  the  last  official  statement  of  the 
population  with  34,000,000  inhabitants,  the  planters  have  many  labor 
difficulties,  and  especially  so  when  labor  is  needed  the  most — as  at 
the  time  when  the  people  are  busy  with  their  crops  of  rice  and  other 
native  cultures.  It  is  claimed  by  this  association  that  its  members 
are  being  forced  to  the  use  of  mechanical  appliances  for  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  their  fields,  and  a  committee  has  been  appointed  to  investi¬ 
gate  the  use  of  tractors  for  plowing  and  for  ditching.  The  chairman 
of  this  committee  has  been  experimenting  with  tractors  for  many 
years.  Three  American  machines  are  now  at  work  on  his  planta¬ 
tion.  The  first  one,  brought  out  in  1914,  was  a  60-horsepower  cater¬ 
pillar  machine  of  a  standard  American  make,  but  it  was  found  that 
the  power  was  not  sufficiently  high  for  work  in  the  heaviest  ground. 
On  light  ground  it  handles  a  6-furrow  John  Deere  plow,  making  a 
15-indi  furrow  from  10  to  12  inches  deep,  plowing  an  average  of 
5J  acres  in  a  day.  While  this  tractor  did  not  prove  to  be  the  right 
one  for  the  work  required,  it  had  many  points  that  were  satisfactory, 
and  a  75-horsepower  machine,  of  the  same  make,  was  brought  out 
in  1915.  This  was  found  to  be  more  satisfactory,  being  able  to  han¬ 
dle  the  plow  in  the  heaviest  soil,  making  six  furrows  at  once,  with  a 
daily  average  of  7  acres.  After  experimenting  with  these  two 
machines,  another,  of  120  horsepower,  was  ordered.  This  arrived  in 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


311 


1917  and  experiments  have  been  going  on  ever  since.  It  was  found 
to  be  satisfactory  m  power  and  in  mechanical  construction,  but  the 
tread  would  not  hold  in  the  wet  clay  under  the  heavy  drafts,  the 
heaviest  of  which  is  making  the  ditches  for  the  final  planting  of  the 
cane.  These  are  made  in  pairs  5  feet  from  center  to  center  and  22 
inches  deep. 

SMALL  TRACTOR  SUITABLE  FOR  TOBACCO  CULTIVATION. 

Like  the  sugar  planters,  the  tobacco  planters  of  Java  believe  the 
time  to  be  near  when  they  will  be  forced  to  use  machinery. 

While  the  problem  in  the  tobacco  fields  is  similar  in  some  respects 
to  that  of  the  sugar  planters,  there  are  some  fundamental  differences. 
The  sugar  planters  have  skilled  mechanics  and  repair  shops  con¬ 
nected  with  their  industry,  while  the  tobacco  planters  have  no  shops. 
The  sugar  planters  level  the  rice  fields  before  planting,  while  the 
tobacco  planters,  especially  in  the  Vorstenlanden,  endeavor  to  pre¬ 
serve  the  contour,  at  least,  of  the  rice  fields.  Sugar  is  planted  in 
deep  furrows  from  4  to  5  feet  apart,  and  there  is  no  series  of  suc¬ 
cessive  plowing,  while  the  tobacco  fields  go  through  a  slow  prepara¬ 
tion  for  months  before  planting.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  requires 
light  machines  for  the  finer  cultivation,  and  yet  the  ground  must 
be  turned  to  a  depth  of  15  inches,  and  some  heavy  ditching  is  to  be 
done. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  with  wheeled  and  track-laying 
tractors,  and  a  small  type  of  the  latter  has  been  found  to  be  suited 
to  the  requirements. 

SUPERIORITY  OF  TRACTOR  FOR  CLEARING  THE  JUNGLE. 

Most  of  the  arable  land  on  the  island  of  Java  is  under  cultivation 
or  reserved  for  forests  by  the  Government.  The  development  of 
agricultural  areas  in  the  Outer  Possessions  is  slowly  progressing 
as  the  railways  and  roadways  push  farther  into  the  interior.  The 
natives  in  the  Outer  Possessions  usually  can  not  be  hired  for  clear¬ 
ing  the  jungle,  and  immigrant  laborers,  principally  from  Java,  are 
employed  under  a  contract  system.  The  Javanese  laborers  are  not 
used  to  working  in  the  humid,  fever-laden  jungles,  and  the  mortality 
among  them  is  exceedingly  high.  Every  laborer  lost  represents  to 
the  investors  a  cost  of  100  florins  or  more  for  indent  charges,  and 
it  is  very  difficult  to  get  new  recruits.  For  these  reasons  Dutch  com¬ 
panies  clearing  lands  for  agricultural  purposes  and  for  rights  of 
way  for  railways  and  roadways  have  been  turning  toward  the  trac¬ 
tor  as  a  solution  of  the  problem.  Some  experiments  have  been  made 
with  tractors  in  this  type  of  work,  and  the  reports  are  that  they 
proved  the  advantage  of  the  tractor  over  the  native  Javanese  labor. 
From  present  indications  it  would  seem  that  as  soon  as  the  agricul¬ 
tural  industries  recover  from  the  depression  of  1920  and  1921  there 
will  be  a  market  for  tractors  for  this  purpose. 

ROAD  ROLLERS. 

An  English  road  roller  of  from  5  to  15  tons  has  had  the  major 
share  of  the  business  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  thus  far. 

The  colonial  government  builds  the  roads  in  the  Outer  Possessions, 
while  in  Java  the  building  and  upkeep  are  done  by  the  various  resi- 


312  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

dencies,  and  the  road  work  of  the  various  cities  is  done  by  the 
municipal  engineers.  The  purchases  of  road-building  machinery  in 
the  colony  are  very  large  and  worthy  of  considerable  attention  from 
the  American  manufacturer.  The  machinery  houses  equipped  to  sell 
road  rollers  are  already  representing  rollers  of  European  make,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  get  exclusive  representation. 

Service  to  owners  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  trade,  and  this 
phase  of  American  effort  has  been  neglected,  as  well  as  the  quick 
availability  of  supplies  of  parts. 

The  manufacturer  of  one  standard  American  road  roller  is  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  by  one  of  the  leading  engi¬ 
neering  houses.  This  house  is  also  the  agent  for  a  popular  British 
road  roller  which  has  been  in  the  market  for  a  great  many  years, 
and  the  engineers  have  become  accustomed  to  its  use.  The  Ameri¬ 
can  road  roller  referred  to  is  constructed  to  do  the  same  work  as 
the  British  road  roller  mentioned,  and  it  does  not  seem  possible  that 
the  American  machine  can,  through  this  channel,  get  a  proper  repre¬ 
sentation. 

At  the  end  of  this  chapter  is  given  a  list  of  the  departments  of  the 
Government  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  that  requisition  road 
rollers  and  tractors,  and  also  a  list  of  the  provincial  and  municipal 
engineers,  giving  the  title  of  the  officer  rather  than  the  name.  Lists 
of  machinery  importers  are  on  file  with  the  Commercial  Intelligence 
Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

In  order  to  get  recognition,  American  road  rollers  and  tractors 
must  be  kept  at  work,  and  this  means  owner  service  on  the  part  of 
the  manufacturer’s  representatives  and  friendly  treatment  by  the 
Government  engineers  and  the  machine  operators. 

MARKET  POSSIBILITIES. 

There  is  a  considerable  market  for  all  sorts  of  machinery  for 
making  macadam  roads  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  every 
year  the  colonial,  provincial,  and  municipal  governments  are  adding 
materially  to  their  equipment.  The  market  is  big  enough  to  warrant 
a  considerable  amount  of  attention  being  given  it,  and  the  American 
manufacturers  can  not  expect  machinery  importers  who  are  repre¬ 
senting  old-established  makes  to  give  sales  effort  and  adequate  serv¬ 
ice  to  a  competitive  line.  Manufacturers  seriously  interested  in  the 
trade  can  only  get  sales  effort  and  service  through  having  their  own 
representative  or  representatives  in  the  field  working  alongside  the 
machinery  importers. 

Many  of  the  residencies  and  municipalities  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  are  experimenting  with  various  binders  for  their  roads.  The 
automobile  traffic  has  brought  road  problems  that  have  not  yet  been 
solved  and  the  motor  truck  is  accentuating  these  problems.  The 
increasing  traffic  and  the  unreliability  of  labor  are  turning  the  minds 
of  the  engineers  toward  labor-saving  machinery. 

A  British  make  of  road  roller  is  most  favorably  considered  by  the 
road  engineers.  There  is  a  large  number  in  use  and  a  steady  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  equipment  is  being  made. 

An  American  road  roller  is  represented  by  one  of  the  machinery 
importers,  but  it  has  met  with  comparatively  little  success  in  the 
market. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  29. — TAN DJOENGPRIOK  (BATAVIA)  HARBOR. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


MACASSAR  HARBOR,  CELEBES. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


313 


American  manufacturers  of  road  machinery  equipped  with  boilers 
should  study  the  boiler  laws  of  the  colony  and  equip  their  machinery 
accordingly,  as  no  permits  are  granted  for  boilers  not  built  under 
those  laws. 

OTHER  MACHINERY. 

Manufacturers  of  stone  breakers  and  other  road-building  machin¬ 
ery  will  find  the  engineers  interested  in  their  catalogues,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  detailed  statements  of  tests,  as  the  building  conditions  vary 
throughout  the  colony. 

The  municipalities  are  interested  in  street  sprinklers  of  the  type 
used  for  flushing  gutters  in  the  United  States.  Batavia  is  using 
several  of  these  sprinklers  on  American  truck  bodies,  and  each  truck 
carries  a  pump  and  rubber  suction  hose  for  filling  the  tank  from  the 
canals.  The  municipality  of  Macassar  plans  to  bore  wells  at  con¬ 
venient  points  to  a  maximum  depth  of  15  feet,  from  which  salt 
water  will  be  drawn.  Water  is  available  in  most  parts  of  the  colony 
at  a  maximum  depth  of  25  feet.  Quotations  should  be  made  for 
tanks  knocked  down  for  shipment,  for  trucks  with  cradle  for  tanks, 
for  pumps,  and  for  station  tanks,  together  with  frame  ready  for 
bolting  together,  fitted  with  pump  base.  The  capacity  of  the  pump 
should  be  sufficient  to  refill  the  stowage  tank  while  the  sprinkler  is 
emptying  and  returning. 

Manufacturers  of  road  binders  will  find  a  market  in  the  colony  that 
will  take  considerable  quantities  of  their  product  if  it  can  be  laid 
down  at  Java  ports  at  a  price  that  will  make  its  use  possible. 

The  “  locomobile  ”  is  used  in  many  of  the  sawmills  throughout  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  and  for  many  other  purposes,  including  the 
driving  of  dynamos  for  lighting.  The  boiler  laws  in  this  colony  do 
not  conform  to  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  boiler  code,  and  American  boilers  will 
not  pass  inspection.  Manufacturers  intending  to  bid  for  this  busi¬ 
ness  will  have  to  build  boilers  according  to  the  Dutch  law,  a  copy 
of  which  is  on  file  with  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com¬ 
merce. 

HOUSEHOLD  SUPPLIES. 

OIL  AND  GAS  STOVES  AND  HEATERS. 

The  use  of  kerosene-burning  ranges  is  very  limited  in  both  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  and  British  Malaya,  for  the  reason  that 
cooking  for  the  foreign  community  is  done  by  natives  and  Chinese, 
who  are  accustomed  only  to  the  na.±ve  stoves  and  primitive  cooking 
utensils.  There  is  some  regular  demand  for  two-burner  oil  stoves 
from  the  European  population.  These  are  used  for  cooking  break¬ 
fasts  and  dishes  made  or  superintended  by  the  European  women. 

A  few  kerosene-oil  heaters  are  in  use  in  the  mountain  districts  of 
Java,  and  one  American  importer  reports  a  regular  trade  in  these 
stoves.  In  British  Malaya  the  mountain  districts  are  almost  inacces¬ 
sible  and  few  Europeans  have  mountain  homes,  while  in  the  lowlands 
there  is  no  need  of  artificial  heat.  With  few  exceptions,  the  bath¬ 
rooms  of  both  colonies  are  equipped  with  a  tub  or  tank  of  water,  a 
dipper  being  provided  with  which  water  is  dashed  upon  the  bather, 
and  sometimes  a  shower  is  added.  Hot  water  is  seldom  used.  In 
Java  there  is  a  demand  opening  up  for  modern  sanitary  appliances, 
and  a  few  of  the  hotels  in  the  mountain  districts  have  installed  porce¬ 
lain  bathtubs  with  hot  and  cold  water.  There  has  been  some  call  for 


314  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


water  heaters  from  the  importers  in  Bandoeng,  the  capital  and  com¬ 
mercial  center  of  the  mountain  province. 

A  considerable  development  in  the  range  of  commodities  handled 
by  merchants  in  both  colonies  has  been  made  during  the  past  few 
years,  and  manufacturers  of  cooking  apparatus  will  probably  find 
that  a  part  of  their  lines  is  suitable  to  the  developing  requirements. 

Gas  stoves  are  sold  by  the  gas  companies  in  the  cities  where  they 
have  installations.  The  two-burner  cooker  is  used  generally  by  the 
European  population. 

ELECTRIC  BULBS  AND  LAMPS. 

The  Philips  lamps,  which  are  made  in  the  Netherlands,  are  well 
introduced  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  and  hold  the  bulk  of  the  trade. 
The  imports  for  Java  and  Madoera  only  in  1920,  in  units  of  1,000 
lamps,  were  as  follows:  Netherlands,  611;  United  States,  51;  Great 
Britain,  7;  Germany,  229;  Japan,  43;  and  China,  11. 

The  trade  in  electric  bulbs  for  the  various  municipalities  is  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  companies  manufacturing  the  current,  all  renewals  or 
changes  being  made  by  a  man  sent  out  from  the  central  station.  On 
the  directorate  of  most  of  these  companies  is  a  Dutch  firm,  which, 
before  the  war,  was  the  representative  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
for  the  German  Electric  Co.  (the  A.  E.  G.).  Since  the  war  this 
firm  was  incorporated,  and  it  formed  a  subsidiary  company  that 
specializes  in  electrical  supplies.  It  may  be  inferred  that  all  the 
supplies  for  the  big  municipal  plants  will  be  routed  through  this 
subsidiary  company. 

Outside  of  the  above-mentioned  combination,  there  is  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  private  installations  for  estates  and  some  few  municipal  light¬ 
ing  systems.  Three  of  the  electric-light  installations  of  minor  mu¬ 
nicipalities  have  on  their  directorate  another  company,  which  has 
made  considerable  progress  as  an  importer  of  electrical  supplies  dur¬ 
ing  the  war  years,  and  the  supplies  for  these  installations  will  natu¬ 
rally  go  through  this  concern,  which  also  acts  as  engineering  adviser 
to  many  of  the  estate  installations. 

There  is  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  number  of  estates  that  have 
electric-light  installations,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  very  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  them  either  already  have  electric-light  systems  or  are  live 
prospects  for  installations. 

Imports  of  electric  lamps  (not  bulbs)  into  Java  and  Madoera  only 
are  given  in  the  following  table  (1  florin=$0.402  mint  par  U.  S.)  : 


Countries. 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Netherlands . 

Florins. 

112,000 

82,000 

7,000 

Florins. 
703, 000 
337,000 
16,000 

Florins. 

208,000 

88,000 

7,000 

72,000 

18,000 

22,000 

United  States . • . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Japan . . . 

126,000 

11,000 

99,000 

28,000 

All  other . 

Total . 

338,000 

1, 183, 000 

415,000 

These  are  stocked  by  the  electric-light  companies  and  a  few  small 
dealers  working  in  conjunction  with  them. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


315 


Some  of  the  larger  towns  in  British  Malaya  have  electric-light 
plants  serving  the  down-town  districts,  but  none  of  them  give  satis¬ 
factory  service  to  the  residential  districts.  Many  of  the  plantations 
and  tin  mines  have  electrical  installations.  The  market  for  electric- 
light  bulbs  is  not  large  and  is  supplied  from  British  sources. 

GAS  AND  OIL  LAMPS. 

Imports  of  gas  lamps  into  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  1919  were 
valued  at  454,000  florins,  in  round  figures,  of  which  74  per  cent  came 
from  the  United  States  and  18  per  cent  from  the  Netherlands.  The 
figures  for  1920,  for  Java  and  Madoera  only,  show  an  import  value 
of  638,000  florins,  of  which  68  per  cent  was  from  the  United  States, 
20  per  cent  from  the  Netherlands,  and  10  per  cent  from  Japan.  These 
imports  are  classified  by  the  customs  division  as  hanging  lamps,  wall 
lamps,  and  lamps  not  otherwise  mentioned. 

American  acetylene  lamps  have  found  a  good  market  for  use  by 
plantations  and  householders  in  districts  not  served  by  the  electric 
or  gas  companies.  This  trade,  which  is  routed  through  the  general 
importer,  is  capable  of  a  large  expansion. 

The  gas  works  in  Batavia,  Soerabaya,  Semarang,  and  Buitenzorg, 
in  Java,  and  Medan,  in  Sumatra,  are  owned  by  the  same  company 
that  controls  the  electric-light  installation  in  the  city  of  Batavia.  It 
imports  gas  fixtures  and  sells  at  retail  to  the  gas  consumers. 

In  British  Malaya  mantle  gas  lamps  are  in  use  in  the  cities  where 
gas  is  piped  to  the  homes  and  in  connection  with  acetylene  installa¬ 
tions  and  gasoline  generators  in  the  cities  and  throughout  the  out¬ 
lying  districts. 

Imports  of  oil  lamps  into  the  Netherlands  Indies  are  classified  under 
the  following  headings:  “Hanging  lamps  with  tin  top,”  “hanging 
lamps  with  glass  top,”  “  wall  lamps  without  top,”  and  “  lamps  not 
otherwise  mentioned.”  In  1919  the  total  value  was  288,000  florins,  of 
which  54  per  cent  was  received  from  Japan,  18  per  cent  from  the 
Netherlands,  and  5  per  cent  from  the  United  States.  There  were  im¬ 
ported  into  Java  and  Madoera  in  1920  oil  lamps  to  the  value  of 
1,970,000  florins,  of  which  39  per  cent  came  from  Germany,  21  per 
cent  each  from  the  Netherlands  and  Japan,  and  11  per  cent  from  the 
United  States.  This  trade  is  routed  through  the  general  importers. 

British  Malaya  has  a  considerable  trade,  in  oil  lamps,  which  is 
routed  largely  through  the  general  importers.  The  department 
stores  carry  a  fairly  wide  range  of  lamps  and  import  direct. 

Under  the  classification  of  “  lamps  and  lamp  ware,”  imports  into 
British  Malaya  in  1920  were  as  follows,  values  being  given  in  Straits 
dollars  (1  Straits  dollar— $0.5678  mint  par  U.  S.)  :  United  States, 
S$122,584;  United  Kingdom,  S$272,018;  Hongkong,  S$15,725;  Ger¬ 
many,  S$155.365 ;  Netherlands,  S$9,699;  Sweden,  S$15,007 ;  Japan, 
S$2 00,827 ;  all  other  countries,  S$45,947. 

ALUMINUM  WARE  AND  EARTHENWARE. 

Aluminum  cooking  utensils  are  carried  in  stock  by  the  depart¬ 
ment  stores  and  better  Chinese  shops  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
and  are  usually  routed  through  the  regular  importing  houses.  The 
imports  during  1920  for  Java  and  Madoera  amounted  to  516,903 


316  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


florins,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  54,512  florins;  the  Neth¬ 
erlands,  229,721  florins;  Germany,  187,488  florins;  and  Japan,  23,690 
florins. 

The  import  returns  show  earthenware  under  the  classification 
given  below.  The  imports  by  countries  for  1919  are  in  florins  (1 
florin =$0,402  mint  par  U.  S.). 


Countries. 

Plates. 

Cups  and 
saucers. 

Slop  bowls. 

All  other. 

Total. 

Netherlands . 

Florins. 
231, 747 

Florins. 
100, 847 

Florins. 
16, 711 

Florins. 
415, 364 
150, 868 
103, 155 
18,016 
623, 486 
634,976 
119, 404 

Florins. 
764,669 
150,868 
110,881 
23,669 
941,296 
1,553,546 
125, 592 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

2, 445 

5,281 

Germany . 

5,653 
76, 569 
3,523 
330 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

211,  293 
677,  221 
3, 969 

29, 948 
237, 826 
1,889 

Japan  7. . .77. . 

All  other . 

Total . 

1,126, 675 

375, 791 

102, 786 

2,065,269 

3,670,521 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

775, 115 
351,560 

292, 026 
83,765 

14, 978 
87,808 

1, 229, 258 
836,011 

2,311,377 
1,359, 144 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

In  1919  J apan  supplied  42  per  cent  of  the  total  imports ;  Singapore 
and  Penang,  26  per  cent;  the  Netherlands,  21  per  cent;  the  United 
States,  4  per  cent;  and  Great  Britain,  3  per  cent.  That  part  im¬ 
ported  from  the  United  States  was  largely  sanitary  supplies.  In 
1920  the  imports  into  Java  and  Madoera  amounted  to  4,590,590 
florins,  of  which  57  per  cent  came  from  Japan,  22  per  cent  from  the 
Netherlands,  7  per  cent  from  Singapore,  4  per  cent  each  from 
Germany  and  England,  and  less  than  1  per  cent  from  the  United 
States. 

No  double-thick  stoneware  is  seen  in  the  markets.  A  fairly  good 
quality  of  ware  of  medium  weight  is  required.  Good  packing  and 
careful  stowage  aboard  ship  and  a  favorable  freight  rate  are  essen¬ 
tials  to  the  gaining  of  a  share  in  this  trade. 

The  department  stores  are  the  principal  importers  of  the  better 
class  of  tableware,  including  porcelain. 

Plates  range  in  size  from  4  to  10  inches,  outside  diameter,  ad¬ 
vancing  by  inches.  Some  are  decorated  in  gold  and  other  colors, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  business  is  in  plain  white  stoneware  for  the 
popular  trade. 

Cups  and  saucers  are  imported  in  the  teacup  size  for  the  general 
trade,  with  and  without  handles. 

Slop  bowls  are  the  ordinary  round  bowls,  without  covers,  ranging 
in  half  inches  from  5  to  9^  inches,  outside  diameter. 

Latex  cups. — A  large  demand  comes  from  the  rubber  estates  for 
latex  cups.  The  stoneware  cup  is  very  largely  used,  but  the  glass  cup 
is  preferred,  as  the  European  assistants  can  see  at  a  glance  if  they 
are  properly  cleaned.  Japan  is  supplying  both  stoneware  and  glass 
cups.  Breakage  in  transit  and  on  the  estate  is  a  serious  item  of 
expense,  and  a  stronger  cup  than  is  being  used,  if  not  heavier,  will 
undoubtedly  command  a  higher  price. 

The  imports  of  earthenware  into  British  Malaya  in  1920,  by  coun¬ 
tries,  were  as  follows  (in  Straits  dollars)  :  United  Kingdom, 
S$120,766;  Netherlands,  S$122,814;  Hongkong,  S$128.524;  China, 
S$678,425;  Japan,  S$676,27l;  all  other  countries,  S$52,901. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


317 


GLASSWARE. 

The  European  department  stores  and  some  of  the  Chinese  shops 
in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  carry  stocks  of  glass  tableware,  for 
which  there  is  a  fair  trade  in  the  cheap  and  medium  grades.  The 
department  stores  and  jewelers  stock  cut  glass  in  most  of  its  forms. 

The  principal  reason  American  glassware  has  not  been  acceptable 
to  the  trade  is  that  the  packing  is  such  that  the  loss  by  breakage  has 
wiped  out  all  profit.  In  the  Java  ports  freight  is  handled  very 
roughly,  and  therefore  the  packing  must  be  most  carefully  done. 

Manufacturers  catering  to  this  trade  will  be  able  to  more  nearly 
meet  the  requirements  by  studying  the  designs  popular  in  the  colony 
and  filling  their  orders  from  those  designs. 

Japanese  factories  have  been  selling  lamp  chimneys  and  chimneys 
for  gas  lamps  much  inferior  to  the  American  makes,  but  on  account 
of  the  breakage  in  shipments  of  American  chimneys  the  importers 
prefer  to  sell  the  Japanese  product. 

RICE  BOWLS,  FRYING  PANS,  AND  COOKING  UTENSILS. 

There  is  a  large  demand  for  rice  bowls  in  British  Malaya,  the 
supply  coming  principally  from  England,  and  German  makes  are 
beginning  to  appear.  These  have  a  low,  flaring  bowl  of  cast  iron, 
with  cast-iron  ears  or  handles.  They  are  made  in  nests  of  ten,  rang¬ 
ing  in  size  from  1  to  10,  one  quality  weighing  55  pounds  and  the  other 
65  pounds  to  the  nest. 

A  steady  demand  is  made  in  British  Malaya  for  bright  polished 
frying  pans,  in  sizes  from  6  to  12  inches,  of  a  type  made  by  a  British 
manufacturer,  although,  according  to  a  leading  importer,  the  trade 
would  take  any  other  equally  serviceable  pan. 

In  cast-iron  cooking  utensils  there  is  a  considerable  trade  through 
the  native  and  British  Indian  shops.  These  come  from  England  and 
are  well  made,  heavily  tinned  inside,  and  fitted  with  heavily  tinned 
covers. 

Teakettles  are  very  similar  to  those  on  the  American  market,  and 
therefore  a  description  of  them  is  unnecessary. 

Stewpans  are  low  in  shape,  with  a  slight  flare,  and  have  a  wrought- 
iron  tubular  handle  of  solid  construction. 

Saucepans  are  bellied  similar  to  the  “  Chinese  pot  ”  in  the  Ameri¬ 
can  trade.  The  handle  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  stewpan. 

Boiling  pots  are  the  same  as  the  saucepans,  except  that  they  are 
fitted  with  a  heavy  iron  wire  bale  instead  of  a  handle. 

FILTERS  AND  REFRIGERATORS. 

In  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  the  water  is  not  fit  to  drink  until 
filtered.  The  city  of  Soerabaya  has  a  very  good  water  supply,  as 
have  also  Semarang  and  Medan.  Batavia  and  Macassar  and  some 
of  the  smaller  towns  will  soon  have  modern  water-supply  systems, 
but  the  denseness  of  the  population  of  J ava  precludes  the  assumption 
that  any  water  system  that  may  be  develeoped  will  make  filtering 
and  boiling  the  water  unnecessary.  The  natives  entirely  disregard 
the  necessity  for  care  in  this  respect.  The  market  for  filters  is  there¬ 
fore  limited  to  the  whites  and  half-castes,  who  number  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  of  200,000,  and  the  more  prosperous  Chinese. 


318 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


American  manufacturers  desiring  to  secure  any  of  this  business 
will  find  that  all  the  Dutch  importers  of  machinery  are  already  repre¬ 
senting  European  filter  manufacturers. 

It  can  not  be  said  that  there  is  a  large  market  in  the  Netherlands 
Indies  for  any  product  that  is  not  used  by  the  natives,  but  the  use 
of  filters  is  general  among  approximately  250,000  people  in  the  colony. 
The  larger  part  of  the  demand  is  for  earthenware  filters  with  a 
capacity  of  from  8  to  TO  liters  (liter=2.11  liquid  pints)  per  day. 

Such  housewives  in  this  colony  as  use  ice  boxes  are  satisfied  with 
a  zinc-lined  box  made  by  the  local  Chinese  carpenters.  Some  Ameri¬ 
can  refrigerators  of  wooden  construction  have  been  imported  by  one 
of  the  department  stores  catering  to  the  better  class  of  trade,  but 
the  slow  sale  did  not  encourage  them  to  reorder.  The  present  being 
a  time  of  transition  in  the  colony,  many  innovations  are  making  head¬ 
way  in  home  and  office  equipment,  and  the  use  of  modern  refrigera¬ 
tors  may  be  expected  to  grow  with  the  development. 

As  the  general  importer  or  department  store  will  probably  make 
little  sales  effort  to  put  this  line  on  the  market,  the  manufacturer 
will  find  helpful  the  circulation  through  the  mail  of  attractive  adver¬ 
tising  matter.  Circulars  to  the  estates  and  mills  should  be  in  Dutch. 

Stoneware  filters  from  Europe  are  in  use  in  British  Malaya  by 
the  European  and  better  class  Chinese,  and  the  probabilities  are  that 
a  fair  sale  could  be  developed  for  modern  American-made  filters 
through  careful  introduction. 

Ice  boxes  made  by  Chinese  carpenters  are  used  by  the  better  classes 
in  districts  where  ice  can  be  obtained.  These  are  unscientifically 
constructed,  and  are  therefore  wasteful  of  ice.  American  refrigerat¬ 
ing  devices  are  very  expensive  by  the  time  they  are  offered  to  the 
ultimate  users,  and  the  high  prices  asked  preclude  their  use  by  the 
ordinary  householder  who  uses  ice. 

The  Europeans  in  the  tropical  Orient  seldom  consider  themselves 
as  permanent  residents,  and  they  are  not  inclined  to  buy  expensive 
household  equipment.  American  manufacturers  who  have  agents 
carrying  stocks  in  this  territory  could  help  their  dealers  sell  by  cir¬ 
cularizing  the  various  lists,  showing  the  saving  in  ice  that  can  be 
effected  as  well  as  calling  attention  to  the  better  sanitary  conditions 
possible  with  modern  equipment. 

American  refrigerators  and  ice  boxes  made  with  wooden  cases 
are  not  suitable  for  use  in  British  Malaya. 

HARDWARE  AND  RELATED  ARTICLES. 

AXES  AND  ADZES. 

The  axes  used  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  come  largely  from 
Holland.  They  have  a  narrow  bit  and  a  very  large  eye.  There  is 
no  balance  to  this  tool  and  very  little  force  is  given  to  the  blow  by 
the  natives  who  use  them.  All  hardware  catalogues  list  American 
axes  with  illustrations,  but  the  trade  is  largely  in  favor  of  the  so- 
called  “  inlandsch  ”  model.  American  manufacturers  may  expect 
a  limited  trade  in  the  American  model  in  this  colony,  but  it  may  be 
possible  to  design  an  ax  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  natives 
of  the  tropical  Orient  than  either  the  American  or  “inlandsch” 
model.  There  is  a  large  volume  of  sales  of  axes. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


319 


The  wood  of  the  Tropics  is  harder  on  the  cutting  edge  of  an  ax 
than  that  of  the  United  States,  but  the  strength  of  the  natives  can 
not  be  compared  with  that  of  the  American  axmen.  The  narrower 
bit  seems  to  have  something  to  recommend  it  for  use  by  the  natives. 
Plantation  managers  issue  axes  to  their  laborers,  expecting  them  to 
provide  their  own  handles,  and  the  big  eye  of  the  “  inland  ”  model 
makes  it  possible  for  the  native  to  cut  a  suitable  handle,  while  he 
could  not  make  . one  for  the  American  ax. 

One  dealer  offers  an  American  hand  ax  which  was  apparently 
specially  made  for  this  country.  This  has  the  general  shape  of  the 
Chinese  carpenter’s  hand  ax  and  is  offered  in  weights  of  0.80  and 
1.10  kilos. 

Axes  of  American  pattern  are  very  generally  in  use  in  British 
Malaya,  and  there  is  a  good  trade  through  Singapore  and  Penang 
with  Sumatra.  While  this  is  not  what  might  be  termed  a  “  big 
line,”  yet  there  is  a  very  steady  sale.  The  popular  demand  is  for 
single-bitted  ax  heads  only,  in  weights  of  2|  and  3  pounds,  fitted  as  a 
hunter’s  ax  after  arrival  with  a  short  handle,  and  3J  and  4  pound 
heads  only,  which  are  fitted  after  arrival  with  36-inch  handles.  The 
34-pound  axes  find  their  ultimate  market  in  Sumatra  chiefly,  while 
the  4-pound  ax  is  more  popular  in  the  peninsula. 

Specifications  seen  call  for  “  Yankee  pattern  with  bright  polished 
top  and  enameled  bright  blue,  but  the  cutting  edge  to  be  bright 
polished.  Packing :  1  dozen  to  the  box.” 

Second-quality  handles  only  are  imported  in  lengths  of  36  inches. 
Hunters’  ax  handles  are  in  16-inch  lengths  and  of  second-quality 
material. 

There  is  a  small  sale  in  British  Malaya  for  carpenters’  adzes. 
Carpenters,  wheelwrights,  and  coffin  makers  are  the  principal  buy¬ 
ers.  These  adzes  are  narrow,  the  bit  running  from  3  to  4  inches  in 
width.  The  trade  requires  a  good  quality  adz,  blued,  with  bright 
cutting  edge,  weighing  from  3  to  3^  pounds. 

HAMMERS  AND  SLEDGES. 

There  is  a  small  market  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  for  the 
medium  qualities  of  carpenters’  hammers,  but  the  large  demand 
is  for  a  cheap  hammer  that  will  sell  at  retail  for  1  to  1.50  florins 
(florin  ==$0,402  mint  par  U.  S.). 

Machinists’  hammers  of  first  quality  are  in  demand,  both  ball  and 
cross  peen,  in  weights  ranging  from  100  to  1,000  grams.  These  are 
sold  without  handles. 

In  British  Malaya  adz-eye  nail  hammers  are  the  staple  in  the 
market  and  are  imported  both  with  and  without  handles.  The  weight 
of  the  head  is  specified  in  ordering,  the  bulk  of  the  business  being 
for  heads  of  from  one-half  to  1  pound,  although  there  is  some  de¬ 
mand  up  to  lj-pound  heads.  There  is  no  demand  for  fine  qualities, 
a  fair  quality  being  required  at  a  price  that  will  compete  with  the 
English  and  German  manufactures  that  are  at  present  being 
imported. 

Ball  peen  hammers  in  weights  of  from  one-half  to  2  pounds,  with¬ 
out  handles,  are  in  good  demand.  Straight  or  cross  peen  hammers 
are  not  required.  This  trade  is  being  supplied  by  England  and 
Germany. 


320  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

There  is  a  considerable  demand  for  double-faced  cast-steel  sledge 
hammers  up  to  5  pounds.  England  and  Germany  are  supplying  the 
trade.  Handles  are  made  locally. 

SAWS. 

In  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  the  best  makes  of  American  hand¬ 
saws  are  carried  by  the  dealers  in  the  better  classes  of  tools,  but  the 
European  saws  with  their  lower  prices  are  found  in  the  shops  cater¬ 
ing  to  popular  trade.  The  demand  is  for  saws  from  14  to  26  inches 
in  length.  The  woods  used  in  building  construction  are  harder  than 
American  woods  and  the  teeth  average  a  larger  number  to  the  inch 
than  the  American  trade  requires. 

Many  of  the  Chinese  carpenters  use  the  Chinese  saw,  similar  in 
principle  to  the  bucksaw  used  in  the  United  States,  but  so  made  that 
the  blade  can  be  turned  at  any  angle.  The  blades  are  from  20  to  39 
inches  long. 

American  crosscut  saws  are  known  to  the  trade  and  have  proved 
satisfactory  in  every  respect.  Some  saws  with  drag  teeth  are  seen 
in  the  shops,  but  the  greatest  demand  is  for  saws  with  cutting  teeth 
only.  There  is  very  little  call  for  saws  shorter  than  5  feet. 

Pit  or  whip  saws  are  in  largest  demand,  as  most  of  the  lumber 
used  in  the  colony  is  whipsawed.  Lengths  are  from  4J  to  7J  feet. 

Miners’  saws  are  listed  “  extra  heavy  models.”  The  dimensions 
of  blades,  in  inches,  are  24,  28,  and  32  by  If ;  36  and  40  by  2^ ;  44  by 
2f ;  and  48  by  2f . 

There  are  several  types  of  folding  saws  used  for  pruning  trees  on 
the  plantations  and  a  stout  saw  for  pruning  coffee  and  tea  plants. 

The  standard  brands  of  American  handsaws  are  not  suitable  to 
the  British  Malaya  market,  being  too  expensive.  The  carpenters  are 
Chinese,  who  are  accustomed  to  use  web  saws,  and  the  handsaws  are 
used  generally  by  the  inexpert  workmen.  They  are  sold  on  a  price 
basis,  and  manufacturers,  both  American  and  English,  usually  do  not 
put  on  their  factory  marks.  Sizes  run  from  16  to  26  inches,  the  reg¬ 
ular  factory  assortment  of  tooth  numbers  being  suitable  to  the  trade, 
unless  specific  orders  are  given  for  other  assortments.  The  bulk  of 
the  trade  is  for  saws  from  20  to  26  inches  long.  The  English  fac¬ 
tories  have  been  supplying  this  trade,  and  of  late  the  Germans  have 
been  getting  a  share  of  it  at  prices  that  are  low. 

There  is  a  steady  demand  for  saw  blades  in  lengths  of  from  20  to 
39  inches  for  the  Chinese  trade.  These  are  used  in  a  frame  made 
by  the  Chinese  carpenters  of  much  the  same  pattern  as  the  turning 
or  cabinet  saw  frame.  The  teeth  are  of  the  “  peg  ”  type. 

The  American  crosscut  saws  found  a  ready  market  in  British 
Malaya  during  the  war  and  for  a  time  after  the  armistice,  but  the 
English  manufacturers  have  been  able  to  win  the  trade  back  on  a 
price  basis,  and  now  German  makes  have  made  their  appearance. 

Importers  and  dealers  stock  the  ordinary  types  of  one  and  two  man 
saws  in  3J  to  8  foot  lengths,  but  the  bulk  of  the  demand  is  for  4J  to  6 
foot  lengths.  The  “  tenon  ”  tooth  only  is  required. 

Saws  must  be  equipped  with  strap-handle  fittings,  there  being  no 
demand  for  patented  handles.  Brands  should  be  etched  on  both 
sides.  Such  brands  as  “  Engine  ”  or  “  Locomotive  ”  are  popular,  with 
an  etching  illustrating  the  name. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


321 


There  is  a  large  sale  of  web  saws  for  the  use  of  the  Chinese  in  re¬ 
sawing.  Most  of  the  lumber  is  cut  by  hand  with  these  web  saws, 
there  being  very  few  sawmills  in  the  peninsula.  The  usual  lengths 
are  from  5  to  8  feet,  in  widths  of  2  and  2J  inches.  They  are  usually 
imported  plain,  without  teeth,  but  when  filed  the  teeth  are  1  and  1£ 
inches,  usually  with  a  slight  hook  both  ways  from  the  middle  of  the 
saw.  The  most  popular  size  is  5J  feet  by  2  inches  by  18  B.  W.  G. 

All  sorts  of  makes  of  hack-saw  blades  are  on  the  British  Malaya 
market.  American  manufacturers  are  in  a  fairly  good  position  with 
respect  to  this  trade.  All  sizes  are  stocked,  but  the  bulk  of  the  busi¬ 
ness  is  in  12  to  16  inches.  An  adjustable  frame  is  required. 

There  are  no  band-saw  mills  on  the  Malay  Peninsula.  All  sorts 
of  makes  and  qualities  of  circular  saws,  however,  are  on  the  market 
and  sales  are  made  on  a  price  basis.  Some  demand  is  noted  for  saws 
of  24,  30,  and  36  inches,  but  the  principal  sizes  required  are  42,  48, 
60,  and  72  inches. 

The  usual  mill  equipment  is  one  rack  feed  bench  (or  carriage)  and 
two  “  spot  ”  or  “  breast  ”  benches. 

No  market  has  been  developed  for  inserted  tooth  saws,  but  when 
the  Chinese  learn  to  use  this  type  of  saw  it  may  be  expected  that  they 
will  replace  the  plain  tooth  saws. 

CARPENTERS’  TOOLS  OTHER  THAN  SAWS  AND  HAMMERS. 

American  planes  made  of  metal  are  listed  in  all  the  hardware  cata¬ 
logues  of  the  Netherlands  Indies.  The  Chinese  are  the  carpenters  of 
the  colony  and  many  of  them  make  shift  with  very  primitive  planes 
of  their  own  construction.  European  wooden  planes,  made  to  do  the 
same  work  as  the  American  models,  are  in  the  market.  American 
manufacturers  of  wooden  planes  may  find  a  market  here. 

There  are  four  types  of  chisels  carried  by  the  jobbers,  all  of  the 
“  tanged  ”  models  and  listed  as  of  English  manufacture.  Structural 
timbers  in  this  colony  are  always  “fitted,”  and  there  is  therefore 
considerable  use  for  the  chisel  in  building  construction. 

American  ratchet  braces,  breast  drills,  and  bits  are  all  favorably 
known,  as  well  as  other  semiautomatic  tools.  Cheap  braces  without 
ratchets,  made  in  Germany,  held  this  market  almost  exclusively 
before  the  war. 

There  is  but  a  limited  trade  for  these  better  class  American  tools 
with  the  larger  estates  and  the  machine  shops.  The  business  in  the 
better  makes  is  routed  through  the  machinery  and  hardware  import¬ 
ers,  but  the  large  trade  is  in  cheap  tools,  which  are  imported  by  the 
general  importers.  While  they  depend  on  the  importers  of  staples 
to  handle  their  business,  manufacturers  will  have  to  be  prepared  to 
meet  the  requirements  in  small  details,  such  as  color  and  polish  of 
wood  parts.  The  importers  slavishly  follow  the  market  and  do  not 
like  the  slightest  change  in  manufacture.  In  this  larger  trade  price 
is  the  first  essential,  and  the  second  is  a  duplication  of  the  tools  al¬ 
ready  popularized  in  the  markets. 

A  list  of  these  cheap  tools  seen  in  the  shops  comprises  hammers, 
hatchets  (without  claw),  screw  drivers,  small  levels,  drawknives, 
saws,  pliers,  pincers,  try-squares,  chisels,  wood  planes  with  single 
bits,  braces,  bits,  nail  pullers,  and  folding  meter  rules  (metric 
system). 


322 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAY  A, 


Nail  pullers. — There  is  a  good  demand  for  nail  pullers  in  British 
Malaya,  but  cast-iron  pullers  are  not  wanted.  The  most  popular 
puller  is  one  in  which  the  hammer  rod  is  of  wrought  steel  running 
through  a  wrought-iron  tube,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  leather 
thong.  These  are  supplied  by  England  and  Germany. 

BLACKSMITHS'  TOOLS. 

The  native  blacksmiths  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  found 
in  every  village  and  along  the  country  roads,  their  equipment  being 
primitive  in  the  extreme.  Their  bellows  is  built  on  the  principle  of 
the  Chinese  box  bellows  and  the  equipment  of  light  tools  is  very 
limited,  mostly  made  by  themselves.  The  sale  of  western-made 
blacksmiths’  tools  is  to  the  sugar  mills,  estates,  and  machine  shops. 
These  constitute  a  considerable  list  of  users. 

Anvils  are  sold  in  sizes  25,  30,  40,  60,  and  200  kilos. 

Swage  blocks  are  built  on  metric  measurements  in  six  sizes,  rang¬ 
ing  from  65  to  235  kilos.  Swage-block  standards  or  bases  are  used 
in  this  colony  in  numbers  from  1  to  6,  corresponding  to  the  sizes  of 
the  swage  blocks.  These  are  made  in  weights  of  from  110  to  135  kilos. 

The  American  assortment  of  anvil  tools  covers  the  range  of  sizes 
listed  in  jobbers’  catalogues. 

Sledges  and  hammers  used  in  this  colony  correspond  closely  to  the 
American  range  of  patterns  and  weights. 

Blacksmiths’  vises  run  in  numbers  from  1  to  18,  ranging  in  weight 
from  12  to  180  kilos  and  in  maximum  jaw  space  from  85  to  255  milli* 
instcrs 

THREADING  AND  PIPE  TOOLS. 

American  threading  and  pipe  tools  are  well  known  in  the  machine 
shops  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  but  English  makes  are  used  to 
a  larger  extent,  partly  because  of  the  greater  ease  with  which  they 
may  be  procured  and  because  the  first  use  of  American  makes  is  of 
more  recent  date.  American  manufacturers  desiring  to  secure  a 
larger  share  of  this  trade  would  do  well  to  insist  that  their  agents 
carry  an  adequate  stock  at  the  various  centers  and,  in  support  of 
their  agents,  circularize  every  machine  shop  and  estate  in  the  colony 
with  illustrated  printed  matter  (in  Dutch,  if  possible ;  but  if  not.  in 
English)  showing  the  latest  patterns  of  tools,  as  well  as  the  full  line, 
and  how  to  use  them. 

As  a  rule,  pipe  up  to  2  inches  is  threaded  by  hand  with  the  ordi¬ 
nary  stock  and  die.  Some  mills  have  hand-power  machines  for 
threading  up  to  4-inch  pipe,  and  larger  pipe  is  usually  threaded  in 
a  lathe.  Makers  of  power  tap  and  die  machines  will  undoubtedly 
find  some  business  with  the  sugar  mills.  Pipe  wrenches,  as  well  as 
cutters  and  reamers,  may  be  sold  here.  English  thread  measurements 
are  used  both  for  pipe  and  bolts. 

In  selecting  an  agent,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  his  organi¬ 
zation  covers  the  whole  colony,  and  if  he  can  not  give  a  satisfactory 
guaranty  that  he  will  place  the  tools  in  all  parts  where  they  are 
required,  such  territory  should  be  reserved  for  another  representa¬ 
tive,  if  the  whole  field  is  to  be  covered.  In  this  line  Soerabaya  is 
of  first  consideration,  as  that  city  is  the  supply  point  for  the  greatest 
of  the  industries;  next  comes  Batavia,  the  point  of  distribution  for 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


323 


the  Preanger  tea  estates,  as  well  as  rubber  and  coffee  estates;  the 
third  in  importance  is  Semarang,  also  an  important  estate  district. 
The  East  Coast  Residency  of  Sumatra  is  probably  the  fourth  in  im¬ 
portance,  served  from  Medan,  and  should  not  be  overlooked,  as  many 
of  the  Java  houses  do  not  have  branches  there  and  depend  on  agents 
appointed  by  themselves.  Other  commercial  districts  are  based  on 
Padang  (Sumatra)  and  Macassar  (Celebes). 

CUTLERY. 

The  big  native  trade  in  cutlery  is  limited  to  but  a  few  types  of 
knives — the  “  piso  blati,”  the  fan  knife  or  “  lakmessen,”  and  the 
“pisomedja  Harder.”  The  piso  blati  is  a  cheap,  small  wooden-han- 
dled  knife  with  a  “  through  ”  tang,  carried  by  the  natives  of  central 
and  east  Java  in  a  sheath  hanging  from  a  cord  or  belt,  and  is  a 
general  utility  knife.  Before  the  war  they  came  principally  from 
the  Harder  factories  in  Germany  and  were  sold  through  Carl 
Schlieper,  the  German  import  house  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 
This  knife  is  made  with  a  wooden  handle  in  blade  lengths  of  3J, 
5,  5£,  5J,  and  5f  inches. 

The  fan  knife  has  one  blade,  which  folds  into  a  bone-mounted 
handle  of  two  parts.  This  knife  is  a  staple  throughout  the  Orient. 
The  Java  market  calls  for  blade  lengths  of  2J,  3,  and  3J  inches. 

The  pisomedja  Harder  is  the  staple  table  knife  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indian  trade  and  is  used  largely  by  the  natives  as  well  as  the 
higher  classes  of  the  population.  The  name  translated  means  table 
knife  Harder,  from  the  factory  of  Harder,  which  factory  held  a 
practical  monopoly  of  the  trade  before  the  war,  selling  through  Carl 
Schlieper.  These  knives  are  made  in  two  sizes,  with  blades  of 
and  5J  inches  long. 

/Scissors  and  shears. — American  scissors  and  shears  competed  suc¬ 
cessfully  for  the  trade  in  Java  markets  during  the  war  and  post¬ 
war  years  until  German  scissors  reappeared  in  the  market.  These 
run  from  5  inches  up,  and  there  is  some  trade  in  the  larger  sizes  for 
tailors’  use.  The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  in  sizes  from  5  to  8  inches. 

Pocketknives  of  the  better  grades. — The  “pasirs”  (Chinese  and 
Arab  shop  streets)  carry  some  pocketknives  of  slightly  better  grade 
than  the  fan  knife,  but  the  trade  is  small.  The  department  stores 
catering  to  the  European  and  better  class  Chinese  trade  carry  small 
stocks  of  the  better  grade  of  pocketknives. 

Pruning  and  grafting  knives  come  properly  under  the  head  of 
tools,  although  there  are  two  types  that  are  made  in  the  form  of 
pocketknives. 

Pocket  cutlery. — There  is  a  steady  trade  of  considerable  volume 
in  pocketknives  of  all  descriptions  in  British  Malaya,  with  the  bulk 
of  the  business  in  the  cheaper  qualities.  The  lines  illustrated  in  any 
English  manufacturer’s  catalogues  will  be  a  sufficient  guide  for 
American  salesmen  making  up  lines  of  samples,  but  American  de¬ 
signs  and  novelties  should  not  be  left  out. 

A  close *study  of  English  and  German  lines  and  prices  to  other 
markets  will  give  the  key  to  this  trade,  as  those  two  countries  prac¬ 
tically  monopolize  the  market. 

19878°— 23 - 22 


324  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Table  cutlery  and  butchers'  tools. — Table  knives,  forks,  and  spoons 
are  increasingly  in  use  by  all  classes  above  the  laboring  class  in 
British  Malaya.  The  department  stores  and  better  class  Chinese 
stores  stock  silver-plated  and  solid-silver  ware,  but  the  big  trade 
is  for  a  medium  grade  to  be  sold  at  a  popular  price. 

Knives  are  made  of  the  best  steel,  highly  polished,  with  a 
“  through  ”  tang ;  handles  are  of  xylonite  or  like  material  resembling 
ivory,  even  to  showing  the  fine  ivory  grain,  with  no  rivets,  and  should 
be  “balanced.”  Stainless  and  rustless  knives  are  growing  in  popu¬ 
larity  with  the  better  class  of  buyers.  The  Europeans  call  for  the 
table  size,  while  the  oriental  demand,  which  is  by  far  the  larger, 
is  for  medium  and  dessert  sizes.  England  and,  of  late,  Germany 
are  supplying  this  trade. 

Tea  and  dessert  sizes  of  spoons  of  the  old  English  and  Fiddle 
patterns  are  in  large  demand  for  the  better  class  oriental  trade,  as 
well  as  dessert  size  of  four-tined  forks. 

Butchers’  knives  of  straight  and  bent  patterns  find  a  ready  sale. 
These  must  be  of  the  best  steel,  with  a  “  through  ”  tang,  a  highly 
polished  rosewood  handle,  and  two  or  three  large  rivets  through  the 
handle. 

There  is  a  small  sale  for  butchers’  steels  with  ringed  handles. 

BRASS,  GALVANIZED,  AND  PAINTED  WIRE  CLOTH. 

The  sale  of  brass  wire  cloth  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  is  chiefly 
to  the  sugar  and  tapioca  mills,  ranging  in  sizes  from  60  mesh  and 
up.  This  is  not  an  important  article  in  the  trade. 

There  is  some  trade  in  poultry  net  in  the  colony,  mainly  with  the 
plantations.  The  bulk  of  the  demand  is  for  rolls  of  1  by  25  meters 
long,  30  to  100  mesh  to  the  meter  (J  to  1J  inches). 

A  comparatively  large  trade  is  noted  in  painted  wire  cloth  which 
is  used  for  mosquito  proofing.  Almost  every  plantation  house,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  homes  in  the  cities,  has  a  mosquito-proof  room. 
The  staple  size  is  16  mesh,  1  meter  wide,  and  in  lengths  of  10  and  20 
meters,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in  the  latter  length. 

In  British  Malaya  brass-wire  cloth  is  used  locally  for  making 
sieves.  It  is  imported  in  50-yard  rolls,  3  feet  wide,  in  24,  30,  36,  40, 
50,  and  60  mesh,  with  the  principal  demand  in  the  last  three  sizes. 

American  makes  of  green-painted  wire  mosquito  netting  take  an 
important  place  in  the  British  Malaya  market,  and  the  trade  under 
normal  conditions  is  considerable.  The  American  size  (100-foot 
rolls  of  3-foot  width)  is  wanted.  There  is  some  call  for  14  mesh,  but 
most  of  the  business  is  in  16  and  18  mesh. 

ENAMELED  WARE. 

There  is  not  a  wide  variety  of  enameled  ware  used  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies,  but  the  quantities  used  are  considerable.  Sauce¬ 
pans,  stew  kettles,  and  chamber  sets  in  small  sizes  and  simple  pat¬ 
terns,  lunch  buckets  in  sets,  mugs  with  handles,  tall  cups  without 
handles,  cups  and  saucers,  teakettles,  rice  boilers  of  Indian  design, 
soup  plates,  and  flat  plates,  all  in  various  sizes,  are  in  principal 
demand  for  the  native  trade.  The  bulk  of  the  enameled  ware  seen 
in  the  shops  is  of  blue  and  white  and  green  and  white  ware,  and 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


325 


during  1921  large  quantities  of  granite  ware  have  come  in  from 
Germany. 

The  estates  use  enameled  latex  buckets  with  covers  and  enameled 
pans  for  coagulating. 

Before  the  war  a  very  large  part  of  this  ware  came  from  Germany, 
and  the  Japanese  have  since  made  a  bid  for  the  estate  trade.  The 
Japanese  ware  for  estate  use  has  not  been  as  durable  as  the  supplies 
brought  in  from  Germany,  according  to  estate  managers,  but  con¬ 
siderable  quantities  have  been  put  into  use. 

Enameled-ware  imports  are  routed  through  the  general  importing 
houses. 

Washbasins,  bowls,  and  plates  and  lipped  saucepans,  with  and 
without  enameled  covers,  in  white  and  blue  and  white,  all  sizes,  are 
staples  in  the  British  Malaya  market. 

Dinner  carriers  of  four  and  five  compartments,  in  white  and  blue 
and  white,  as  well  as  in  fancy  flower  designs,  find  a  ready  sale.  They 
are  of  the  same  pattern  as  those  sold  on  the  Manila  market. 

Enameled  pails  in  white  and  blue  and  white  are  in  demand  for 
general  household  use  and  for  collecting  rubber;  sizes,  11  and  12 
inches.  Covers  are  ordered  separately. 

The  demand  for  seamless  pans  for  coagulating  rubber  in  the  estate 
factories  is  decreasing,  as  most  of  the  larger  estates  are  using  acid- 
resisting  concrete  tanks.  There  is  still  considerable  business  offer¬ 
ing  from  small  estates.  Sizes  are  15  by  10  by  4  inches,  16  by  10  by 
4  inches,  and  18  by  9  by  3|  and  4  inches. 

Japan  and  England  are  the  principal  sources  of  supply.  Before 
the  war  Germany  and  Austria  held  a  large  portion  of  this  trade,  and 
those  countries,  now  making  a  bid  for  the  business,  are  meeting  with 
some  success. 

BUCKETS. 

For  buckets  used  in  collecting  rubber  there  is  a  very  large  demand 
in  British  Malaya. 

Seamed  galvanized -iron  buckets. — The  shops  catering  to  native 
and  general  trade  call  for  a  seamed  galvanized  bucket  of  light  qual¬ 
ity,  from  32  to  34  pounds  to  the  dozen  for  the  basic  size — 12-inch 
opening  and  11  inches  deep  holding  4  imperial  gallons.  These  have 
a  heavy  hoop  foot  riveted  to  the  base,  strong  riveted  ears,  and  fluted 
galvanized-iron  handle,  and  are  used  by  the  native  planters  and  for 
general  purposes.  They  are  made  in  sizes  of  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  and 
14  inches  at  the  opening  and  in  the  same  proportion  throughout, 
and  are  ordered  in  assortments  of  8  to  14  inches,  10  to  14  inches,  and 
12  to  14  inches  of  equal  numbers  of  each  size,  packed  in  nests  of  12 
and  wired.  Bright  new  stock  is  required,  as  appearance  is  a  large 
factor  in  both  wholesale  and  retail  trade. 

Riveted  galvanized-iron  buckets. — European  estates  call  for  heavier 
buckets  with  a  riveted  joint,  weighing,  in  the  12-inch  size,  from  36 
to  38  pounds  to  the  dozen,  with  a  heavy  riveted  hoop  foot,  heavy 
forged  and  riveted  ears,  and  a  fluted  handle.  These  are  made  in 
sizes  of  10,  11,  12,  13,  and  14  inches  at  the  opening,  and  are  ordered 
in  assortments  of  10  to  14  inches  and  12  to  14  inches  of  equal  num¬ 
bers  of  each  size,  packed  in  nests  of  12  and  wired. 

Some  estates  call  for  a  bucket  of  the  12-inch  basic  size,  weighing 
60  pounds  to  the  dozen,  with  loop  ears  and  no  handle.  These  are 


326  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

specially  used  on  Sumatra  tobacco  estates.  The  pattern  is  similar  to 
the  last  bucket  described,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  bottom 
is  cross-strapped  and  two  large  loop  ears  are  required  for  ropes  to 
be  placed  through.  The  coolie  carries  two  of  these  buckets  on  a  pole 
when  watering  tobacco  plants.  When  the  price  is  high,  the  planters 
generally  use  wooden  tubs. ' 

LOCKS,  HINGES,  BOLTS,  AND  SCREWS. 

During  1921  German  manufacturers  flooded  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  market  with  locks  and  hinges  of  a  very  flimsy  construction 
for  the  native  trade.  They  were  cheap,  however,  and  in  the  Java 
market  price  is  the  main  consideration  in  commodities  for  this  trade. 

Door  lochs. — In  door  locks  the  big  trade  is  in  the  cheap  cast-iron 
or  pressed-steel  lock,  with  porcelain  or  composition  handles.  Before 
the  German  factories  began  to  flood  the  market  with  their  products 
American  locks  of  these  types  sold  readily.  The  Japanese  manu¬ 
facturers  made  a  bid  for  this  business,  but  their  lines  were  not 
acceptable  to  any  large  portion  of  the  trade  even  at  the  low  prices 
offered. 

There  is  but  a  small  demand  for  mortise  locks  and  the  better  grades 
of  door  locks.  Locks  finished  in  bronze  and  brass  are  not  suitable 
to  the  climate,  as  they  rust  quickly  and  lose  their  finish.  As  new 
building  starts  there  should  be  a  sale  for  a  better  grade  of  builders’ 
hardware,  and  especially  for  locks  of  solid  brass  or  bronze.  To 
develop  this  trade  the  lines  will  have  to  be  properly  presented  and 
an  easy  channel  provided  through  which  it  can  be  obtained. 

Cupboard  lochs. — There  is  a  comparatively  large  demand  for  cup¬ 
board  locks  for  wardrobes  in  sizes  up  to  3  inches,  with  and  without 
escutcheons.  The  principal  demand  is  for  iron  locks,  but  brass  or 
brass  and  iron  locks  are  used  for  the  better  class  of  furniture. 

Chest  lochs. — Chest  locks  are  in  large  demand,  with  and  without 
bells.  The  European  manufacturers,  following  the  demand,  have 
made  chest  locks  with  a  double  turn  of  the  key,  the  first  turn  ringing 
the  bell  and  the  other  opening  the  lock.  These  are  made  of  iron  and 
are  of  cheap  construction. 

Padlochs. — There  is  a  big  market  for  padlocks  of  all  the  cheap 

frades  and  a  small  demand  for  the  better  grades  in  Netherlands 
ndies.  American  manufacturers  of  the  better  grades  of  padlocks 
developed  a  fair  demand  for  their  products  until  German  goods  began 
to  arrive,  but  they  report  a  cessation  of  business,  due  to  disadvan¬ 
tageous  exchange  rate  and  to  the  German  competition. 

The  products  of  three  American  padlock  manufacturers  are  well 
introduced  in  British  Malaya,  that  of  one  line  on  a  purely  quality 
basis  and  the  others  on  a  price  and  quality  basis.  The  big  demand 
is  for  cheap  padlocks  to  sell  at  retail  from  S$0.35  to  S$1.50  (Straits 
dollars),  with  a  smaller  trade  in  large  sizes  of  locks  of  cheap  con¬ 
struction.  Brass  padlocks  are  growing  in  favor. 

Hinges. — In  the  Netherlands  Indies  a  butt  of  lighter  metal  than 
the  lightest  qualities  on  the  American  market  is  required  in  sizes  of 
(square)  2J,  3,  3-J,  and  4  inches.  Tee  hinges  are  of  a  pattern  slightly 
different  from  those  on  the  American  market  and  in  the  same  weights 
as  the  butts. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


327 


The  business  in  strap  hinges  is  small,  but  this  is  not  a  popular 
pattern  in  this  market.  There  is  a  limited  but  steady  demand  for 
all  sorts  of  chest  and  furniture  hinges,  both  in  steel  and  brass,  and 
also  for  cheap  spring  door  hinges.  The  German  factories  have 
flooded  the  market  with  cheaply  made  stocks  of  hinges  of  all  sizes 
and  patterns  suitable  to  the  trade  at  very  low  prices. 

One  American  manufacturer  of  hinges  has  been  making  light  iron 
loose  and  tight  pin  butts  of  an  extra  light  weight  suited  to  the 
British  Malaya  market,  and  enjoyed  a  large  portion  of  the  trade 
during  and  for  some  time  since  the  war.  English  and  German  manu¬ 
facturers,  who  understand  the  requirements  of  this  trade  thoroughly, 
are  now  getting  most  of  the  business  on  a  price  basis.  Sizes  stocked 
run  from  2  to  4  inches. 

The  above  applies  also  to  brass  butts,  except  that  sizes  run  from 
1^  to  6  inches,  the  larger  size  being  used  on  the  heavy  front  doors  of 
the  Chinese  houses. 

Bolts. — A  very  large  part  of  the  demand  for  bolts  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  is  for  hexagon  machine  bolts  in  sizes  from  one-fourth  to 
1J  inches,  mostly  under  1  inch,  and  in  lengths  from  one-half  to  16 
inches.  All  measurements  are  between  the  head  and  the  nut  when 
the  outer  side  of  the  nut  is  flush  with  the  bolt  end. 

The  principal  demand  for  nuts  is  of  the  hexagon  pattern,  but 
square  nuts  are  also  used,  as  well  as  blank  nuts. 

There  is  a  steady  demand  in  British  Malaya  for  bolts  for  French 
doors  or  windows,  fastening  at  the  same  time  into  the  floor  and 
lintel.  These  are  being  supplied  by  English  manufacturers. 

Several  types  of  bolts  are  required.  These  are  used  in  place  of 
spring  chain  bolts  and  of  foot  bolts.  Two  types  of  barrel  bolts  are 
much  in  demand.  One  has  a  pressed-steel  barrel  in  one  piece  with¬ 
out  a  “  strike,”  while  the  other  has  a  cast-iron  barrel  and  “  strike  ” 
and  a  brass  “  shoot  ”  or  bolt. 

In  September,  1920,  one  of  the  principal  Dutch  importers  of  locks 
and  hinges  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  estimated  the  share  of  the  whole 
trade  held  by  American  manufacturers  at  80  per  cent,  and  expressed 
the  opinion  "that  there  was  an  excellent  prospect  for  them  to  retain 
this  advantage.  Some  factories  were  making  up  lines  specially  for 
the  oriental  trade  and  they  Avere  well  received.  Most  of  this  business 
has  gone  to  the  Germans,  partly  on  account  of  their  low  manufactur¬ 
ing  costs  and  the  high  dollar  exchange,  but  principally  because  the 
fine  German  trade  organization  within  the  colony  made  it  possible 
for  them  to  market  through  “  all  German  ”  channels.  The  German 
importers  are  direct  representatives  of  the  manufacturers,  and  sold 
considerable  quantities  of  all  sorts  of  cheap  hardware,  including  locks 
and  hinges,  to  the  natives  through  venders,  who  carried  their  stocks 
in  baskets  swung  on  a  pole,  thus  reducing  middleman  profits  to  a 
minimum. 

A  large  cheap  pressed  or  cast  iron  rim  lock,  with  porcelain  or  com¬ 
position  handle  of  the  type  that  is  standard  on  the  American  mar¬ 
ket,  finds  a  ready  sale  in  British  Malaya.  These  American  locks 
sold  readily  during  and  for  some  time  after  the  Avar,  but  the  lower 
European  exchanges  and  the  ability  of  European  manufacturers  to 
make  deliveries  has  turned  the  business  in  these  and  in  relative  lines 
to  English  and  German  makers.  There  is  but  a  small  demand  for 


328  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

mortise  locks,  especially  in  the  cheaper  grades,  due  to  the  inability 
of  Chinese  carpenters  to  properly  fit  them. 

The  market  depression  has  caused  a  postponement  of  building 
operations,  but  many  buildings  of  the  better  classes  are  proposed, 
and  as  soon  as  conditions  approach  normal  it  is  expected  that  there 
will  be  a  renewed  demand  for  locks  and  other  builders’  hardware  of 
medium  grades  and  for  the  finer  grades  of  bronze  and  brass  locks. 
Some  of  the  finest  homes  in  British  Malaya  are  equipped  with  very 
inferior  hardware,  and  an  improvement  in  this  respect  may  be  ex¬ 
pected  in  response  to  advertising  and  sales  effort.  One  American 
concern  has  introduced  its  line  of  padlocks  so  thoroughly  that  it  is 
in  a  favorable  position  to  participate  in  this  potential  trade. 

Wrought-iron  and  brass  chest,  cupboard,  and  wardrobe  locks  of 
American  makes  were  successfully  introduced,  but  most  of  the  trade 
has  now  been  lost  to  the  British  manufacturers,  who  have  some 
definite  advantages,  especially  in  time  of  delivery. 

Two  American  manufacturers  have  had  a  strong  position  in  the 
trade  for  a  cheap  quality  of  locks  for  many  years.  They  will  have 
to  work  hard  to  hold  their  place. 

Night  latches. — A  good  and  growing  demand  is  reported  for  cast- 
iron  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  brass  night  rim  latches  through  the 
various  grades.  This  line  should  be  pushed,  as  it  will  develop  con¬ 
siderably. 

Iron  and  brass  wood  screws. — Brass  and  bright  wood  screws,  with 
both  flat  and  round  heads,  are  carried  by  the  dealers,  but  the  business 
is  small  in  the  round-head  type.  Flat-head  screws  constitute  a  big 
line,  and  both  English  and  American  makes  are  well  known  in  the 
market.  With  a  normal  exchange  rate  American  screws  would  hold 
an  important  share  of  this  trade.  The  full  range  of  sizes  up  to  3 
inches  are  stocked  by  dealers. 

A  small  but  steady  trade  is  had  in  a  wide  range  of  cheaply  made 
chest  and  cupboard  fittings.  English  manufacturers  dominate  this 
trade. 

CARRIAGE  HARDWARE. 

The  automobile  and  autotruck  are  rapidly  replacing  all  sorts  of 
horse-drawn  vehicles  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  In  the  cities 
and  many  of  the  smaller  towns  the  “  cosong,”  “  sado,”  and  “  deele- 
man”  serve  as  public  hire  vehicles,  but  in  the  cities  these  are  all  very 
much  dilapidated,  and  there  is  little  evidence  of  a  renewal  of  the 
equipment.  The  few  livery  stables  that  exist  in  the  coast  cities  are 
not  renewing  the  equipment,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  owners  of 
horse-drawn  vehicles  have  conceded  that  their  time  is  short.  Tn  such 
interior  towns  at  Buitenzorg,  Soekaboemi,  Malang,  and  Bandoeng  the 
two-wheeled  deelemans  and  sados  are  kept  in  good  condition  and 
many  new  vehicles  are  in  evidence.  This  is  because  the  hire  auto¬ 
mobile  is  not  much  in  competition  and  horse  fodder  is  available  at 
a  comparatively  low  price.  It  is  probable  that  the  four-wheeled 
public  vehicle  is  doomed,  but  the  sado  and  deeleman  will  run  on  the 
country  roads  for  some  time  to  come. 

As  stated  before,  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  it  is  customary  to 
measure  bolts  under  the  head  and  to  the  nut  when  the  nut  is  flush 
with  the  bolt  end.  Following  are  some  of  the  requirements  of  the 
trade : 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


329 


Carriage  bolts  with  flat  head,  square  shank  and  square  nut;  lock  bolts,  half- 
round  head,  square  shank  and  nut ;  wagon  builders’  bolts,  flat  countersunk 
head,  square  shank  and  square  nut;  screw  bolts;  tire  bolts  with  deep  counter¬ 
sunk  head  and  square  nut ;  and  iron  washers  from  l  to  inches,  advancing 
by  &,  and  1J  and  2  inches ;  spring  lock  washers,  single  and  double,  in  sizes  from 
\  to  li  inches. 

Very  few  carriages  are  in  use  in  British  Malaya.  In  Singapore  a 
few  “  gharries  ”  are  still  in  use,  but  the  equipment  is  not  being  re¬ 
newed.  Rickshaws  are  used  in  all  the  larger  towns  and  in  many 
of  the  villages,  and  the  hardware  for  these  comes  from  British 
sources.  Before  the  war  Germany  was  an  important  factor  in  the 
trade  in  rickshaw  wheels  and  axles,  and  the  probabilities  are  that 
that  country  will  reenter  the  trade. 

AXLES.  v 

The  imports  of  axles  into  Java  and  Madoera  only  for  1913  (the 
last  full  pre-war  year),  1919,  and  1920,  by  countries,  are  shown  below. 


Countries. 

1913 

1919 

1920 

Common  axles: 

Number. 

Number. 

Number. 

Netherlands . 

4, 784 

200 

3, 078 

Great  Britain . 

4, 480 

1, 801 

2, 302 

Germany . 

3, 735 

450 

4, 878 

Belgium". . 

'100 

All  other . 

5 

253 

Total . 

13, 104 

2, 451 

10, 511 

Patent  axles: 

Netherlands . 

539 

120 

Great  Britain . 

273 

515 

205 

Germany . 

795 

149 

United  States . 

64 

Total . 

1, 607 

579 

474 

The  “  grobak  ”  is  the  common  means  of  conveyance  of  produce  on 
the  country  roads  in  Java.  These  slowly  moving  vehicles,  pulled 
by  cattle  similar  to  the  type  of  the  Bengali  bullock,  are  often  called 
upon  to  make  long  hauls  when  the  railroads  can  not  handle  the* 
crops.  They  are  used  on  the  sugar  and  other  plantations  for  bring¬ 
ing  in  the  crops  where  the  light  railways  are  not  used,  and  they 
move  a  large  part  of  the  incoming  and  outgoing  cargoes  from  and  to 
the  ports  and  warehouses  and  near-by  plantations.  While  many  of 
these  grobaks  have  wooden  axles,  practically  all  of  the  common  axles 
imported  are  for  them. 

The  patent  axles  are  imported  for  carriages  and  other  light 
vehicles. 

“  Dog  car  ”  axles  are  of  a  type  which  has  two  plates,  one  for  the 
outside  and  another  for  the  inside  of  the  hub.  These  are  connected 
by  four  bolts.  The  inside  plate  rests  against  a  flange  in  the  axle 
and  prevents  the  wheel  from  slipping  off.  They  are  used  for  the 
two-wheeled  passenger  vehicles  throughout  the  colony. 

“Hire  cars”  (automobiles)  are  already  on  the  streets  of  Batavia 
and  may  be  found  at  the  large  centers  of  population.  The  compe¬ 
tition  which  will  eventually  minimize  the  importance  of  the  grobak 
is  coming  from  the  light  industrial  railways,  from  the  motor  trucks, 
and  from  the  road  tractors  with  trailers. 


330  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


SANITARY  GOODS. 

Waslistands  and  flush  closets  comprise  the  principal  trade  in  sani¬ 
tary  goods  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  Hot- water  baths  are  to 
be  found  in  only  two  hotels  in  Java,  and  there  is  no  demand  for 
porcelain  bathtubs  worth  considering  at  the  present  time.  The  de¬ 
mand  is  growing,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  a  full  line 
of  sanitary  goods  will  have  a  place  in  the  trade.  In  the  meantime 
contractors  are  satisfied  with  the  European  product,  and  American 
manufacturers  will  either  have  to  manufacture  a  competitive  article 
at  a  competitive  price  or  make  a  greater  sales  effort  in  order  to  keep 
their  quality  product  on  the  market. 

British  sanitary  goods  of  solid  porcelain  construction  (without  a 
metal  base)  are  selling  in  this  market  at  prices  which  would  shut  out 
American  goods  if  considered  merely  on  a  price  basis. 

Bathtubs,  flush  closets,  washstands,  urinals,  and  such  other  sani¬ 
tary  equipment  as  is  used  in  British  Malaya  comes  almost  entirely 
from  British  factories.  There  are  no  modern  sewerage  systems.  The 
hotels  of  Singapore  and  Penang  use  the  night-pail  system,  and  but 
few  of  the  private  residences  are  equipped  with  septic  tanks.  A 
limited  number  of  hotels  and  residences  have  porcelain  bathtubs.  In 
this  respect  British  Malaya  is  more  backward  than  the  Netherlands 
Indies  in  sanitary  equipment,  but  both  units  present  a  potential  mar¬ 
ket  that  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  will  develop  within  the  next 
few  years.  It  is  not  difficult  to  demonstrate  the  superiority  of  the 
standard  American  sanitary  products  over  European  manufactures, 
but  the  prices  of  metal  base  equipment  is  higher,  and  it  will  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  make  a  considerable  effort  to  educate  the  ultimate  buyers  to 
the  use  of  the  higher  priced  equipment. 

ARMS,  AMMUNITION,  AND  EXPLOSIVES. 

In  1919  the  import  of  high  explosives  for  private  account  into 
Java  and  Madoera  was  82  metric  tons,  all  of  which  came  from  the 
United  States.  Some  42  per  cent  dynamite  is  imported,  but  62  per 
.cent'  dynamite  is  preferred  when  it  can  be  had.  All  of  this  comes 
from  the  Pacific  coast  mills. 

But  one  concern  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  has  a  license  to  import 
sporting  powder.  The  volume  of  this  business  is  very  small  and  is 
chiefly  for  the  bird-of -paradise  hunters  in  New  Guinea. 

The  import  of  arms  and  ammunition  is  under  severe  restrictions, 
and  the  trade  is  therefore  very  small.  Licenses  to  carry  firearms  of 
any  kind  are  difficult  to  secure.  What  trade  there  is  in  these  com¬ 
modities  is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  few  licensed  dealers. 
American  arms  and  ammunition  are  known  in  the  markets,  but  Euro¬ 
pean  makes  are  well  introduced,  and  the  prejudices  due  to  long  use 
will  have  to  be  overcome  before  the  United  States  will  get  an  im¬ 
portant  share  of  the  trade. 


BICYCLES. 

Bicycles  are  used  to  a  very  large  extent  throughout  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies  by  the  white,  half-caste,  Chinese,  and  native  popu¬ 
lation.  The  following  table  shows  the  imports  of  bicycles  into  Java 
and  Madoera  for  1913,  1918,  1919,  1920,  and  1921 : 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


331 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Netherlands . 

Number. 

14,688 

Number. 

243 

373 

264 

Number. 
2, 958 
2,251 
557 

Number. 
10, 095 
781 
5,376 
3, 853 

Number. 

12,955 

508 

2,898 

5,727 

280 

United  States .  .  . .  . 

Great  Britain . 

3, 304 
1,160 

Germany . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

133 

1,428 

24 

115 

150 

14 

Japan . 

All  other . 

198 

162 

491 

Total . 

19,  350 

2,465 

6, 045 

20, 267 

22, 859 

In  1913,  19,350  bicycles  were  imported,  of  which  77  per  cent  was 
credited  to  the  Netherlands,  17  per  cent  to  Great  Britain,  and  6  per 
cent  to  Germany.  During  the  war  years  the  trade  was  disorganized, 
and  the  imports  dropped  to  2,465  in  1918.  The  following  year  (1919) 
showed  an  increase  to  6,045,  of  which  49  per  cent  was  credited  to  the 
Netherlands,  37  per  cent  to  the  United  States,  and  10  per  cent  to 
Great  Britain.  The  1920  returns  show  an  import  of  20,267  machines, 
a  half  of  which  number  was  credited  to  the  Netherlands,  26  per  cent 
to  Great  Britain,  19  per  cent  to  Germany,  and  4  per  cent  to  the 
United  States.  In  1921  the  imports  from  the  United  States  de¬ 
creased  to  508,  or  2  per  cent  of  the  22,859  machines  imported,  while 
Germany  took  second  place  to  the  Netherlands,  with  25  per  cent  of 
the  total,  and  Great  Britain  third  place,  with  12  per  cent. 

All  bicycles  imported  into  the  Netherlands  Indies  have  a  coaster 
hub  on  the  rear  wheel  without  the  braking  device.  They  are  fitted 
with  mud  guards  and  a  brake  on  the  front  wheel.  Many  of  them 
are  also  fitted  with  a  rack  for  stacking  the  wheel  when  not  in  use, 
similar  to  the  ones  used  on  motor  cycles.  Kims  should  be  fitted  for 
clincher  tires,  as  tube  tires  are  not  wanted  under  any  consideration. 
Quotations  are  usually  made  for  bicycles  without  tires. 

All  classes,  including  the  European  population,  use  bicycles,  not 
only  in  the  cities  but  on  the  country  roads  and  on  the  estates. 

It  is  the  custom  for  employers  in  this  colony  to  assist  their  em¬ 
ployees  in  buying  bicycles,  and  the  installment  system  is  developed 
to  some  extent.  In  the  cities  most  of  the  errand  boys  and  many  of 
the  domestic  servants  ride  bicycles,  which  are  used  very  largely  for 
shop  deliveries,  having  built-in  racks  for  carriers  over  the  fork. 

But  little  effort  has  been  made  to  sell  American  bicycles  in  the 
colony,  the  dealers  preferring  to  handle  those  European  makes  that 
their  trade  is  accustomed  to.  The  retail  trade  is  handled  by  Dutch 
and  Chinese  dealers  in  the  larger  towns  and  by  Chinese  dealers 
in  the  smaller  centers. 

Bicycles  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  British  Malaya  by 
native-born  Chinese  and  the  Malays,  as  well  as  by  the  various  Brit¬ 
ish  Indian  races  and  some  of  the  European  residents.  English  man¬ 
ufacturers  supply  most  of  the  trade  at  prices  (June,  1921)  ranging 
from  £5  to  £15,  without  tires.  The  larger  demand  is  for  a  cheap 
and  serviceable  diamond-frame  bicycle  for  the  oriental,  but  there  is 
a  good  trade  in  the  better  makes  of  diamond-frame  machines. 
Ladies’  or  drop-frame  machines  are  in  small  demand.  Sizes  are 
in  22  to  26  inch  frames,  with  the  bulk  of  the  business  in  24  and  26 
inch  frames. 


332  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


SAFES  AND  CASH  BOXES. 

The  Dutch  merchants  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  quite 
naturally  prejudiced  in  favor  of  the  Lips  safes,  which  are  made  in 
the  Netherlands.  Next  to  this  the  German  “  Peltz  ”  safe  is  looked 
upon  most  favorably.  These  are  all  key  safes,  in  some  cases  with 
two  or  more  keys  which  are  used  in  combination. 

The  major  market  for  safes  is  with  the  Chinese.  A  burglar-proof 
safe,  as  that  term  is  understood  in  the  United  States,  is  entirely  un¬ 
necessary  to  the  ordinary  shopkeeper,  a  strong  steel  chest  being  re¬ 
quired  that  will  resist  petty  thieving  and  ordinary  fires.  The  local 
Chinese  metal  workers  make  an  iron  chest  which  opens  on  the  top 
and  locks  with  a  padlock,  this  serving  all  the  purposes  of  the  small 
shopkeeper.  These  chests  are  usually  set  in  masonry  or  concrete  to 
prevent  their  being  carried  off  bodily. 

There  are  numerous  makes  of  small  European  safes  on  the  mar¬ 
ket,  and  during  the  Avar  several  of  the  well-known  makes  of  Ameri¬ 
can  safes  were  imported,  some  in  considerable  quantities.  There 
Avas  undoubtedly  prejudice  against  these  safes  on  account  of  their 
having  combinations  and  being  built  on  wheels  and  because  they 
were  different  from  Avhat  the  trade  had  been  accustomed  to,  but  they 
all  sold  readily. 

The  prejudices  against  the  combination  safe  is  strong  among  the 
more  conservative  of  the  Chinese  and  Dutch  business  men.  The 
Chinese  argue  that  by  having  wheels  on  safes  it  is  easier  for  thieves 
to  steal  them.  European  safes  have  no  wheels,  but  usually  are  built 
so  that  they  may  be  mounted  on  a  metal  standard. 

The  packing  of  American  safes  has  been  most  unsatisfactory  in 
many  cases,  and  the  fact  that  they  have  wheels  is  one  of  the  con¬ 
tributing  causes  of  this  difficulty. 

British  makes  of  safes  and  cash  boxes  are  imported  into  British 
Malaya  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  One  American  manu¬ 
facturer  of  safe  cabinets  has  made  some  progress  in  Singapore. 

SCALES.  -  &$jgSB 

The  metric  system  has  been  adopted  by  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  Government  as  the  official  system  of  measurement,  but  its  use 
has  not  been  made  compulsory.  The  picul  and  catty  and  the  Am¬ 
sterdam  pound  are  used,  and  scales  are  sometimes  made  shoAving 
these  weights  in  combination.  In  size  and  capacity  the  scales 
stocked  by  importers  range  from  postal  and  apothecary  scales  to 
automobile  truck  and  light  railway  scales  and  include  spring-dial 
scales  for  shop  and  household  use,  platform  scales  for  Avarehouses, 
even-balance  counter  scales,  automatic  scales  for  the  many  indus¬ 
tries,  and  various  types  of  steelyards.  A  popular  scale  is  that  used 
by  the  railways,  which  shoAvs  the  weight  on  a  large  dial  Avhen  the 
platform  is  released  by  a  leArer. 

One  make  of  American  scales  is  well  known  and  is  very  largely 
used,  especially  the  portable  platform  pattern. 

The  small  trade  throughout  the  colony  is  carried  on  almost  exclu- 
siArely  by  the  Chinese  (excepting  the  market  trade  betAveen  the 
natures),  who  use  the  Chinese  Avooden  weighing  stick  in  preference 
to  imported  weighing  devices.  Large  steelyards,  either  hung  under 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


333 


a  scaffolding  or  slung  under  a  pole  carried  by  two  coolies,  are  used 
for  weighing  many  kinds  of  produce  in  the  exporters’  warehouses. 

German-made  postal  scales  held  the  market  until  Japanese  scales 
began  to  appear.  The  stationers  are  stocking  these  Japanese  scales, 
which  are  cheaply  constructed  and  seem  to  fulfill  all  the  require¬ 
ments.  A  British  scale  (Salter’s)  is  well  known  in  the  market. 

Standard  scales  of  recognized  marks  are  imported  by  the  general 
importers,  while  scales  for  special  purposes  or  of  slow  sale  are  carried 
by  the  machinery  houses.  Postal  scales  are  sold  by  the  stationers. 

Scales  of  British  manufacture  are  popular  in  British  Malaya,  but 
one  make  of  American  scales  is  well  known  and  enjoys  a  good  trade. 
Beams  are  usually  cut  for  stones  and  pounds  on  one  side  and  piculs 
and  catties  on  the  other.  __ 

FIRE  BRICK  AND  TILES. 

The  imports  of  fire  brick  into  the  Netherlands  Indies  for  1919,  the 
last  year  for  which  full  figures  are  available,  were  228,593  florins,  of 
which  27  per  cent  was  from  the  United  States,  16  per  cent  from  the 
Netherlands,  24  per  cent  from  the  Straits  Settlements,  11  per  cent 
from  Hongkong,  and  13  per  cent  from  Japan.  The  returns  for  Java 
and  Madoera  for  1920  show  an  import  of  1,012,692  florins,  Japan 
leading  with  53  per  cent,  followed  by  the  Netherlands  with  28  per 
cent,  Hongkong  with  8  per  cent,  China  with  4  per  cent,  and  the 
United  States  with  1  per  cent. 

One  user  of  a  large  quantity  of  fire  brick  claims  that  the  American 
product  received  was  not  entirely  satisfactory  and  that  he  was  using 
Norwegian  brick,  although  the  German  product  is  satisfactory.  This 
user  was  willing  to  try  another  shipment  from  an  American  factory 
that  would  take  an  interest  in  his  particular  problem.  With  a  nearly 
normal  exchange  an  American  manufacturer  who  would  make  a 
special  effort  to  comply  with  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  trade  should 
find  a  steady  market  in  the  colony. 

Tiles  for  interior  decoration  were  imported  in  1919  to  the  value 
of  1,032,722  florins,  of  which  86  per  cent  came  from  the  Netherlands, 
10  per  cent  from  Japan,  and  a  small  amount  from  Great  Britain. 
The  Dutch  designs  are  specially  suited  to  the  trade,  but  American 
manufacturers  intending  to  bid  for  this  business  should  not  confine 
their  sales  effort  exclusively  to  Dutch  decorative  effects,  as  some  of 
the  tiles  imported  from  the  United  States  during  the  war,  which  did 
not  follow  the  Dutch  conventions,  found  favor  with  the  trade.  Tiles 
and  marble  slabs  are  used  for  flooring  almost  to  the  entire  exclusion 
of  wood.  The  local  kilns  make  a  fair  quality  of  plain  floor  tiles  and 
supply  the  bulk  of  the  trade. 

BELTING. 

The  sugar  mills  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  use  more  belting 
than  any  other  one  industry.  Little  rubber  belting  is  used,  as  the 
engineers  claim  that  the  acids  will  destroy  it.  Both  cotton  and 
leather  belting  is  used  in  the  sugar  mills,  but  leather  is  more  in  favor. 

Sizes  of  rubber  belting  most  generally  used  by  sugar  mills  are  4, 
5,  and  6  inch  single  and  8-inch  double  leather  belting  and  4  and  5 
inch  cotton  belting.  Other  consumers  of  considerable  quantities  of 
belting  are  the  Government  coal  mines  at  Ombilin,  Boekit  Asem,  and 


334 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Poeloe  Laoet;  the  Government  tin  mines  on  the  island  of  Banka,  the 
Marine  Establishment  at  Soerabaya,  the  State  railways,  the  machine 
shops,  the  sugar  estates,  tea  estates,  coffee  estates,  printing  shops, 
automobile  shops,  the  shops  of  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maat- 
schappij  (Royal  Packet  Co.),  and  the  dry-dock  companies. 

The  Portland  Cement  F abriek,  at  Padang,  Sumatra,  uses  a  20  by  -J 
inch  leather  belt  for  its  main  drive,  delivering  200  horsepower  to  the 
dynamo.  A  large  quantity  of  belting  in  all  sizes  is  used  in  this  mill. 

The  approach  to  this  trade  may  be  made  direct  to  the  larger  con¬ 
sumers  and  through  the  machinery  houses  and  general  importers,  who 
stock  the  staple  dimensions  for  the  immediate  needs  of  the  colony. 
Such  agricultural  companies  as  the  Nederlandsche  Handel  Maat- 
schappij,  Han  dels  vereeniging  Amsterdam,  and  the  Nederlandsch- 
Indische  Landbouw  Maatschappij  patronize  the  machinery  importers 
only  for  supplies  needed  immediately,  buying  through  their  Nether¬ 
lands  offices. 

The  industries  using  belting  in  British  Malaya  are  few,  including 
the  machine  shops,  automobile  repair  shops,  and  tin  mines  as  the 
principal  users.  On  the  main  drives  of  some  of  the  tin  mines  so- 
called  “  camel’s-hair  ”  belt  was  used,  and  the  managers  claimed  that 
it  had  a  life  of  approximately  five  years.  This  belt  has  a  cotton 
face. 

ENGINE-ROOM  AND  MILL  AND  MINE  SUPPLIES. 

The  principal  users  of  engine-room  supplies  in  British  Malaya  are 
the  F.  M.  S.  Railways;  the  dry  docks  at  Singapore;  the  machine 
shops  at  Singapore,  Penang,  Ivuala  Lumpur,  Ipoh,  Seremban,  and 
Port  Swettenham;  the  rubber- working  plants  at  Singapore  and 
Penang;  the  tin  mines;  the  rubber  estates;  and  the  steamers  sailing 
out  of  and  calling  at  the  principal  ports.  There  are  no  industrial 
railways  of  any  consequence.  Railway  supplies  are  bought  through 
Crown  agents  in  London.  The  Singapore  Harbor  Board,  a  branch 
of  the  Straits  Settlements  Government,  operates  the  dry  docks  and 
the  harbor  works  at  the  principal  ports  and  acts  as  a  separate  unit, 
buying  in  the  local  market  for  emergency  needs ;  the  machine  shops 
are  usually  controlled  by  machinery  importing  houses;  the  rubber¬ 
reworking  plants  buy  their  supplies  locally;  some  of  the  tin  mines 
are  operated  by  engineering  companies  that  buy  their  supplies  abroad 
or  locally  for  emergency  needs,  while  the  smaller  units  purchase 
only  in  the  local  markets  or  on  indent  through  the  importing  houses. 
The  requirements  of  the  rubber  estates  are  small  and  are  usually 
supplied  from  local  stocks;  the  locally  owned  steamships  purchase 
their  supplies  locally  or  on  indent  through  the  importing  houses, 
while  the  big  steamship  lines  carry  stocks  of  supplies  at  Singapore. 

British  manufacturers  have  some  very  material  advantages  in  this 
trade.  The  business  organization  is  mostly  British  or  under  British 
control,  and  there  is  a  general  community  of  interests  between  the 
consumers  and  the  stockists  of  British  engineering  supplies.  The 
estate  companies  usually  pay  an  engineer  or  an  engineering  company 
to  visit  their  plants  periodically,  and  the  recommendations  of  these 
visiting  engineers  are  followed. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


335 


AUTOMATIC  FIRE-EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS. 

According  to  a  fire  insurance  agency  representing  British,  Euro¬ 
pean,  American,  and  Australian  fire  insurance  companies  in  Java, 
as  well  as  the  largest  Netherlands  East  Indian  company,  there 
are  no  automatic  fire  extinguishers  in  use  in  the  industries  in  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies.  The  manager  of  this  agency  stated  that 
he  would  reduce  his  rates  under  normal  conditions  by  15  per  cent  if 
approved  apparatus  were  to  be  installed.  When  asked  to  define  his 
idea  of  approved  apparatus  he  referred  to  the  regulations  of  the 
Australian  Fire  Insurance  Association,  and  said  that  such  apparatus 
should  include  an  alarm  at  the  factory,  at  the  manager’s  home,  and  at 
fire  brigade  quarters,  and  it  would  have  to  be  proven  to  the  satisfac¬ 
tion  of  his  company  that  the  apparatus  would  actually  extinguish  or 
prevent  the  spread  of  fire.  His  company  will  welcome  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  American  apparatus  that  have  proven  successful  in  Australia 
and  any  others  that  in  actual  demonstration  will  prove  efficient. 

In  view  of  the  large  investment  in  factory  buildings  in  Java  and 
the  possible  saving  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  insurance  premiums, 
it  would  appear  that  there  is  a  good  field  for  the  development  of  sales. 
Companies  introducing  such  equipment  should  protect  their  patents 
in  the  Netherlands  and  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 

ROOFING. 

Cheap  tile  laid  on  bamboo  poles  is  in  common  use  throughout  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  for  cheap  buildings,  but  this  tile  often 
cracks  in  a  sudden  change  of  temperature,  such  as  is  coincident  with 
a  sudden  thunderstorm.  A  very  satisfactory  tile  is  being  used  on 
the  better  class  of  buildings,  but  this  is  expensive  and  an  adequate 
supply  can  not  be  obtained.  Galvanized  corrugated  roofing  can  not 
be  used  for  schools  and  other  public  buildings  on  account  of  the  heat. 
Dutch  engineers  will  be  particularly  interested  in  the  life  of  the 
fabricated  roofing  under  actual  wear,  its  “  insulation  ”  qualities,  the 
type  of  the  under  roof  or  the  quantity  of  lumber  required,  the  method 
of  attaching  the  under  roof  to  steel-framed  buildings,  the  feasibility 
of  using  woven  bamboo  laid  on  slats  under  the  roofing,  and  the  extent 
to  which  it  is  fireproof. 

Stocks  of  American  fabricoid  roofing  are  carried  in  Sumatra  and 
Batavia  and  there  is  a  small  demand  for  it,  but  no  general  demand 
has  developed  for  its  use  in  the  construction  of  industrial  buildings, 
chiefly  because  it  is  not  sufficiently  fireproof. 

Aside  from  the  native  dwellings,  which  are  thatched  with  nipa 
or  sago  palm  leaves,  the  usual  roof  covering  in  British  Malaya 
is  tiling,  of  which  several  grades  are  produced  locally.  Composition 
shingles  imported  from  the  United  Kingdom  are  used  on  the  better 
classes  of  houses,  and  some  fabricated  roofing  in  rolls  is  used,  but 
generally  for  plantation  buildings. 

MISCELLANEOUS  HARDWARE  SUPPLIES. 

• 

The  business  in  copper,  brass,  and  lead  pipe  in  the  Netherlands 
Indies  is  nearly  all  done  by  the  machinery  import  houses,  although 
some  of  the  larger  milling  companies  buy  through  their  Netherlands 
houses. 


336 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


W ood  pipe. — The  Bureau  of  Public  Works  has  made  a  study  of  the 
use  of  wood  pipe,  based  on  the  experiments  made  with  an  Australian 
product,  and  has  decided  that  it  was  not  suitable  to  its  purposes. 
Should  American  wood  pipe  be  found  to  be  satisfactory  it  is  prob¬ 
able  that  a  large  business  might  be  developed. 

Telephone  cables. — There  is  a  considerable  mileage  of  underground 
telephone  cables  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  it  is  being  con¬ 
stantly  extended.  Manufacturers  in  Japan  are  the  principal  com¬ 
petitors  for  this  business. 

Files. — Two  American  makes  of  files  are  favorably  known  in 
Netherlands  Indies.  Most  of  the  industries  use  one  or  the  other  of 
these  makes.  They  are  considered  by  mill  superintendents  to  be 
superior  to  files  imported  from  Europe  before  the  war. 

Files  of  one  well-known  American  firm  are  firmly  intrenched  in 
the  trade  of  British  Malaya,  taking  precedence  over  all  other  makes. 
The  following  assortments,  taken  from  actual  orders,  show  the  range 
of  the  demand :  Regular  taper  saw  files,  single  cut ;  flat  bastard  files ; 
half-round  bastard  files;  round  smooth  files;  heavy  handsaw,  blunt 
files ;  half-round  wood  rasps ;  and  round  bastard  files. 

There  is  a  considerable  demand  for  goldsmiths’  files,  which  are 
being  supplied  almost  entirely  by  one  British  firm.  These  files  are 
extremely  fine,  and  importers  express  the  opinion  that  American 
manufacturers  can  not  compete  for  this  business.  The  following 
assortments  show  the  range  of  the  demand:  Three-square  smooth 
files,  half-round  smooth  files,  round  smooth  files,  and  knife  smooth 
files.  Manufacturers  soliciting  business  for  this  latter  group  of  files 
should  submit  samples. 

Ratchets  and  drills. — These  are  used  for  work  in  the  mills,  on  the 
railways,  and  wherever  iron  and  steel  construction  is  under  way. 
American  drills  and  ratchets  became  well  known  during  the  war 
years,  the  lengths  used  ranging  from  10  to  24  inches. 

Wrenches. — “  S  ”  wrenches  of  all  sizes  up  to  2-inch  openings  are  in 
use  in  the  sugar  mills  and  other  industries.  While  the  monkey  wrench 
is  used  here  and  all  catalogues  list  them,  the  ordinary  “  S  ”  wrench  is 
more  popular,  as  it  is  thought  to  be  better  suited  to  the  capabilities 
of  native  mechanics. 

Ball  and  roller  bearings. — Portcastle  &  Williams  and  Watson 
Laidway  &  Co.’s  centrifugals  are  most  largely  used  by  the  sugar 
mills  of  Netherlands  East  Indies.  The  183  sugar  mills  operating 
and  the  other  industries  use  large  quantities  of  ball  and  roller  bear¬ 
ings.  One  European  manufacturer  maintains  an  organization  in 
Java  to  take  care  of  this  trade. 

Chain. — One  American  make  of  conveyor  chain  is  well  known  in 
Java,  and  this  factory  has  had  a  rare  opportunity  to  get  estab¬ 
lished  in  this  market.  Each  of  the  183  sugar  mills  in  Java  uses 
conveyor  chain  to  carry  the  cane  through  the  mill.  There  are  some 
peculiarities  in  the  requirements  here,  and  it  would  seem  that  a  little 
study  of  these  conditions  by  the  manufacturers  would  be  worth  while. 

Valves. — A  large  range  of  valves  is  used  in  the  sugar  mills  of 
Netherlands  Indies.  In  small  sizes  for  steam,  some  of  the  mills  pre¬ 
fer  blank  flanges  and  buy  only  the  best  high-pressure  valves. 
The  requirements  range  from  these  high-pressure  valves  down  to 
lightly  constructed  threaded  valves.  Rubber  disks  are  not  wanted, 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


337 


as  the  natives  do  not  know  how  to  care  for  them,  being  used  to  the 
brass  valve  with  brass  seat.  In  larger  valves,  for  both  steam  and 
conveyor  pipes,  there  is  a  wide  range  in  use.  Many  of  the  mills  order 
conveyor  valves  from  the  companies  furnishing  their  plant’s,  but  some 
of  them  believe  they  could  get  better  prices  by  buying  through  the 
importers.  In  some  parts  of  the  mills  these  must  be  lead  lined. 
There  is  only  a  small  amount  of  renewal  of  these,  however.  All 
threads  are  according  to  English  measurements. 

Gauge  glasses  are  listed  by  the  importers  in  dimensions  of  §  to  If 
inches  outside  diameter  and  in  lengths  of  6  to  72  inches. 

W ire  brushes. — Boiler-tube  brushes  in  all  sizes  noted  in  the  list  of 
boiler  tubes  are  used,  special  wire  brushes  being  employed  to  clean 
tubes  of  evaporators.  Flat  wire  brushes  for  general  use  are  im¬ 
ported  in  various  sizes. 

Packing . — There  is  a  wide  range  of  packing  used  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies,  all  of  which  is  listed  in  the  catalogues  on  file  with  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  American  packing  is 
known  in  this  market,  and  manufacturers  will  profit  by  giving  some 
attention  to  the  sugar  mills,  circulajazing  the  special  uses  of  their 
various  types  of  packing.  The  sugar  mills  are  thoroughly  over¬ 
hauled  from  November  to  April,  and  during  these  months  a  large 
part  of  the  packing  is  renewed. 

Abrasives. — The  sawmills,  machine  shops,  and  sugar  mills  of  Neth¬ 
erlands  Indies  require  the  jobbers  to  stock  abrasives  in  a  wide  range 
of  grit  and  sizes.  The  sugar  mills  are  the  largest  consumers.  Car¬ 
borundum  products  are  widely  and  favorably  known  and  are  stocked 
by  the  foremost  importers  of  machinery  and  supplies. 

Babbitt  metal. — The  largest  demand  for  Babbitt  metal  comes  from 
the  sugar  mills  in  Netherlands  Indies  for  journal  packing  of  sugar 
trucks  on  the  light  railways.  Both  loose  and  solid  packing  is  used, 
with  a  maximum  load  of  6  tons  and  maximum  speed  of  15  miles  per 
hour.  For  the  heavy  rolls  in  the  mills  a  slow-speed  Babbitt  metal  is 
required,  with  a  load  capacity  up  to  4,000  pounds  to  the  inch.  Other 
consumers  are  the  machine  shops,  estates  of  various  kinds,  tapioca 
mills,  and  the  shipping. 

British  Magnolia  metal  is  sold  by  the  leading  jobber  of  machinery 
supplies.  The  United  States  was  the  principal  supplier  during  the 
war  years  and  up  to  1920,  but  in  that  year  European  countries  again 
took  the  lead  in  the  returns. 

Sheet  zinc. — Sheet  zinc  is  imported  into  British  Malaya  in  5-hun¬ 
dredweight  (560-pound)  casks  in  sheets  of  6  by  3  inches,  gauges 
(B.  W.  G.)  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  12.  The  bulk  of  the  business  is 
in  10,  11,  and  12  gauge  in  about  equal  proportions.  Sheet  zinc  was 
formerly  used  for  making  gutters  and  drainpipes,  but  the  high 
present  costs  have  caused  the  house  owners  to  use  galvanized  iron 
sheets. 

Before  the  war  Germany  and  Austria  supplied  this  demand. 
American  manufactures  have  been  imported  during  the  war  and  for  a 
time  thereafter  and  proved  satisfactory  in  every  respect,  but  the 
unfavorable  exchange  has  turned  the  trade,  which  is  small,  to  Euro¬ 
pean  markets. 

Pig  iron. — There  is  a  good  demand  from  the  foundries  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  and  Federated  Malay  States  ports  for  pig  iron. 
The  analysis  should  be  equal  to  No.  3  Shotts  (English  quality). 


338  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAY  A. 


SUNDRIES. 


MATCHES. 


There  are  no  match  factories  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  The 
following  table  shows  the  imports  of  common  wood  matches  for 
1913  and  from  1918  to  November,  1921,  by  countries,  in  units  of  1,000 
gross  boxes: 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921  (11 
months 
only).1 

Netherlands . 

2, 330 
31 
166 
504 

3 

2,392 

619 

300 

19 

52 

149 

4 

125 

61 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Sweden.. . 

304 
15 
4, 331 
966 
135 
73 

804 

84 

3,251 

769 

110 

44 

2, 337 

3 

3,834 

159 

59 

14 

1,499 

Other  European . 

Japan . T . 

1,816 

140 

50 

42 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Hongkong . 

All  other . 

Total . _ 

6, 364 

5,876 

5,165 

6, 531 

3,608 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

5, 054 

1, 309 

4,376 

1,500 

3,977 
1, 188 

6,531 

3,608 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


In  1913,  36  per  cent  of  the  imports  came  from  the  Netherlands, 
8  per  cent  from  Sweden,  and  37  per  cent  from  Japan.  The  war 
conditions  changed  the  trade  materially  in  favor  of  Japan,  and  in 
1919  that  country  supplied  63  per  cent  of  the  total  imports,  Sweden 
being  second  with  16  per  cent  and  the  Netherlands  with  but  3  per¬ 
cent.  In  1921,  so  far  as  the  returns  are  available,  Japan  supplied 
but  51  per  cent,  against  Sweden’s  41  per  cent. 

There  has  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  Japa¬ 
nese  matches  during  the  period  under  discussion.  In  1913  that 
country  had  an  important  part  of  the  business  with  a  very  inferior 
article,  and  with  the  improved  product  it  would  appear  that  it  will 
be  able  to  make  a  stronger  bid  for  the  business.  Most  of  the  Japa¬ 
nese  matches  sold  here  are  put  in  boxes  exactly  duplicating  the 
Swedish  box  both  in  construction  and  label. 

Some  Japanese  matches  are  sold  under  Japanese  marks,  and  there 
are  also  matches  with  Chinese  marks. 

American  manufacturers  have  shown  no  disposition  to  bid  for  a 
share  of  this  trade. 

Imports  of  matches  into  the  Straits  Settlements  for  1913  and  from 
1916  to  1920  were  as  follows,  values  being  given  in  Straits  dollars, 
one  Straits  dollar  equaling  $0.5678  United  States  currency: 


Straits  dollars. 


1913 _  967,  874 

1916  _  1,721,794 

1917  _ 2,218,678 


Straits  dollars. 


1918  _  2,  579,  825 

1919  -  3,  047,  687 

1920  _  3,  571,  039 


Japan  was  the  chief  supplier  of  matches  in  the  years  given,  hav¬ 
ing  furnished  as  high  as  96  per  cent  in  1918.  During  1919  Japan’s 
total  fell  to  75  per  cent,  Hongkong  having  supplied  21  per  cent.  In 
1920  Japan’s  percentage  was  53,  Hongkong’s  27,  and  Sweden’s  13. 

A  plant  for  making  matches  was  installed  near  Kuala  Lumpur,  but 
up  to  the  middle  of  1921  it  had  not  been  put  into  operation. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


339 


WASHING  SOAPS. 

As  compared  with  the  washing  soaps  manufactured  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies  the  imports  are  of  secondary  importance.  In  Java 
alone  there  are  28  soap  factories  of  some  importance,  while  there  are 
innumerable  small  factories  scattered  throughout  the  colony.  The 
following  statistics  give  the  volume  of  imports,  by  countries,  into 
the  colony  for  1913,  1918,  and  1919,  imports  for  1920  and  1921  being 
for  Java  and  Madoera  only: 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (10 
months 
only).1 

Netherlands . 

Florins. 
383, 000 
1,000 
503,000 
69,000 
243, 000 
2, 000 
127,000 
39, 000 

Florins. 
42,000 
43,000 
1, 587, 000 

Florins. 

114,000 

53,000 

1, 556, 000 

Florins. 
286,000 
79,000 
1, 066, 000 
17,000 
11, 000 
1,000 

•Florins. 
211,000 
18,000 
850, 000 
11,000 
10,000 

United  States . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Singapore  and  Penang . 

Hongkong  and  China . 

734, 000 
11,000 
120, 000 
3,000 
38,000 
34, 000 

892, 000 

Australia^ . 

339, 000 

25,000 

British  India . 

74,000 

5,000 

2,000 

Japan . 

71, 000 
50,000 

36,000 

1,000 

All  other . 

17, 000 

Total . 

1, 384, 000 

2, 612, 000 

3, 075, 000 

1, 541, 000 

1, 162, 000 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

451, 000 
933, 000 

964, 000 
1, 648, 000 

1, 001, 000 
2, 074, 000 

1, 541, 000 

1, 162,000 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Great  Britain  has  led  consistently  in  this  trade.  The  British  com¬ 
bination  of  soap  manufacturers  have  made  contracts  with  the  prin¬ 
cipal  importers  to  handle  their  soaps  exclusively,  and  their  hold  on 
the  market  is  such  that  importers  have  stated  they  are  not  interested 
in  taking  on  competitive  lines.  Any  attempt  to  share  this  trade 
would  involve  a  hard  fight  with  this  strong  British  combination. 
The  imports  from  Singapore  and  Penang  are  probably  British  soaps, 
either  transshipped  or  taken  out  of  depot  there. 

Imports  from  the  United  States  are  very  small  and  indicate  that 
American  manufacturers  are  not  interested  in  the  trade  in  view  of 
the  competition  presented. 

The  volume  of  local  manufacture  is  indicated  to  some  extent  by 
the  imports  of  caustic  soda.  (See  “  Chemicals.”) 

TOILET  SOAPS  AND  TOILET  ARTICLES. 

The  use  of  toilet  soaps  is  on  the  increase  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies,  as  is  shown  in  the  appended  table.  In  considering  the  market 
for  this  commodity  the  great  mass  of  the  population  must  be  elimi- . 
nated  as  not  being  able  to  afford  so  high  priced  an  article.  The 
buyers  are  the  Dutch,  both  white  and  mixed  bloods,  the  foreign  ele¬ 
ment,  and  a  good  proportion  of  the  Chinese  and  Arab  populations. 

Everyone  in  the  lowlands  bathes  at  least  once  a  day  and  often 
two  and  three  times.  With  the  natives  this  means  washing  in  the 
streams  or  canals,  sometimes  using  a  cheap,  locally  made  soap  but 
more  often  none  at  all. 


19878°— 23 - 23 


340  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  trade  is  used  to  buying  soaps  wrapped  in  a  decorated  paper 
and  packed  three  cakes  to  a  carton.  Some  brands  are  more  popular 
than  others,  but  a  special  attractiveness  of  the  package  will  develop 
a  sale  if  the  soap  is  of  a  good  average  quality.  Besides  the  above 
the  first  requisites  of  the  trade  are  good  distribution,  steady  quality, 
attention  to  filling  orders  promptly,  so  that  the  line  will  never  be 
off  the  market,  and  the  establishing  of  relations  of  mutual  confidence 
with  the  local  representative  so  that  suggestions  from  them  will 
meet  with  the  consideration  they  are  entitled  to. 

To  get  cooperation  of  any  value  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  the 
exclusive  representation  to  some  importer  in  the  colony.  There  are 
many  importers  with  ample  distribution  for  the  island  of  Java  and 
some  of  them  have  branches  or  connections  covering  other  parts  of 
the  colony. 

The  following  table  shows  the  volume  of  trade  in  toilet  soaps  and 
the  present  tendencies : 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

1921  (10 
months 
only).i 

Netherlands . 

Florins. 
494, 000 

Florins. 
13, 000 
15, 000 
585, 000 
4,000 
8,000 
122, 000 
5,000 
327, 000 

Florins. 
77, 000 
221,000 
519, 000 

Florins. 
638, 000 
238, 000 
1, 070, 000 
67, 000 
33, 000 
54, 000 
17, 000 
424, 000 
«,  000 
12, 000 

Florins. 
298,000 
45,000 
763,000 
76,000 
133,000 
10,000 
33,000 
193, 000 
2, 000 
14,000 

United  States . 

Oreat,  13  ri  tain . 

147, 000 
172, 000 
10, 000 
79, 000 

fjp.rmany  and  Austria . 

France  . 

23,000 
97,000 
1,000 
329, 000 
16, 000 
9,000 

Penang  and  Singapore . 

HnriP'konEr . 

Japan  . 

Australia  . 

1,000 

11,000 

All  other . 

10,000 

Total . 

914, 000 

1, 0S9, 000 

1,292, 000 

2,561,000 

1,567,000 

Total  Java  and  Madoera . 

Total  Outer  Possessions . 

583, 000 
331, 000 

854, 000 
235, 000 

985, 000 
307, 000 

2, 561, 000 

1,  5<?7, 000 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


Before  the  war  the  Netherlands  was  the  nominal  country  of  origin 
of  the  bulk  of  the  imports,  but  the  actual  countries  of  origin  for  a 
good  part  of  these  imports  were  the  central  European  countries.  In 
1913  Germany  and  Austria  stood  second  in  the  returns  and  Great 
Britain  third.  By  1918  the  business  in  Java  and  Madoera  had  in¬ 
creased  materially,  with  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  practically 
eliminated,  Great  Britain  in  the  lead,  and  Japan,  a  country  that  had 
not  figured  in  the  returns  in  1913,  coming  second. 

In  1919  Great  Britain  was  again  in  the  lead,  with  Japan  second, 
but  both  of  these  countries  had  shared  their  trade  with  the  United 
States,  which  then  stood  third,  but  by  1921  this  trade  was  practically 
lost. 

Soaps  are  listed  in  the  import  returns  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
under  “  soaps  ”  and  “  toilet  soaps.”  Under  the  first  heading  is  shown 
a  total  value  in  1920  of  S$l,431,129  (Straits  dollars),  of  which 
S$l, 177,139  came  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  S$151,130  from 
Australia.  The  United  States  does  not  appear  in  the  returns.  Un¬ 
der  “toilet  soaps”  is  shown  a  total  import  of  S$941,744,  of  which 
S$752,416  came  from  the  United  Kingdom,  S$9,296  from  Australia, 
S$35,728  from  Japan,  and  S$73,302  from  the  United  States. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


341 


The  British  soap  combine  has  a  strong  hold  on  this  trade. 

In  cheap  cosmetics,  face  powders,  and  rouge  Japan  is  the  principal 
supplier  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  while  the  best  qualities 
come  from  France. 

French  and  other  European  toilet  waters  are  most  favorably 
looked  upon. 

To  introduce  or  to  maintain  an  American  brand  of  toilet  articles 
in  this  market  a  responsible  representation  is  requisite,  one  with  a 
good  distribution  organization.  There  are  several  such  concerns  in 
the  colony,  and  the  success  of  one  American  line  has  shown  the 
importers  that  American  manufacturers  can,  if  they  will,  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  trade  in  every  respect.  American  manufacturers 
can  not  expect  their  agents  to  sell  as  full  lines  in  this  colony  as  are 
sold  in  the  United  States  nor  to  maintain  the  same  proportion  between 
the  various  articles. 

The  trade  in  toothbrushes  is  with  the  foreign  population,  the 
Chinese,  and  the  people  of  mixed  blood.  There  would  be  some  sale 
for  high-grade  brushes  if  they  were  properly  presented,  but  the  large 
bulk  of  the  trade  is  in  a  popular-priced  brush.  One  American  brush 
of  this  latter  type  is  on  the  market  and  is  found  to  be  a  very  steady 
and  satisfactory  seller. 

OFFICE  EQUIPMENT. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  typewriters  and  calculat¬ 
ing  machines  imported  into  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  during  1913, 
1918,  1919,  1920,  and  1921,  by  countries: 


Countries. 

1913 

1918 

1919 

19201 

19211 

United  States . 

395 

4, 026 

5,565 

302 

6, 476 

5,074 

816 

Netherlands . 

1, 540 

53 

911 

Great  Britain . 

128 

23 

77 

248 

294 

Germany . 

173 

17 

156 

72  J 

Japan . 

46 

26 

Straits  Settlements  and  Hongkong . 

139 

222 

494 

244 

326 

All  other . 

22 

45 

48 

27 

178 

Total . 

2, 397 

4, 415 

6,529 

8, 062 

7,417 

1  Java  and  Madoera  only. 


The  1920  figures  were  taken  from  the  annual  report  of  the  Division 
of  Customs,  and  the  1921  figures  were  taken  from  the  monthly 
December  issue  of  the  monthly  returns  for  Java  and  Madoera  only. 
This  latter  publication  shows  as  a  comparative  figure  the  imports 
for  1920  as  13,631  machines,  or  5,569  more  than  are  shown  in  the 
annual  returns.  This  increase  was  nearly  all  in  the  imports  from 
the  Netherlands.  An  examination  of  the  monthly  returns  leads  to 
the  supposition  that  an  error  was  discovered  in  the  1920  returns  in 
July. 

Typewriters. — Before  the  war  a  few  American  typewriters  were 
imported  direct  to  Netherlands  Indies,  but  much  the  larger  part  of 
them  were  routed  through  the  Netherlands,  and  they  are  credited 
to  that  country  in  the  returns  for  1913,  besides  many  of  the  British 
and  German  machines.  The  figures  for  later  years  show  a  large 
increase  in  the  direct  import  of  American  machines. 


342 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Few  natives  are  educated  as  stenographers,  and  it  is  no  unusual 
thing  to  see  the  head  of  a  large  business  concern  writing  his  letters 
with  a  pencil  or  on  a  typewriter,  after  which  they  are  transcribed 
by  a  native  typist. 

There  is  no  effort  on  the  part  of  the  agents  of  the  typewriters  to 
develop  a  force  of  stenographers,  their  attitude  being  that  more 
machines  will  be  sold  if  each  department  head  has  a  machine  for  his 
own  use.  The  typewriter  is  growing  in  use  rapidly,  and  dealers 
say  that  the  country  is  far  from  adequately  equipped. 

Business  houses  in  British  Malaya  do  not  yet  appreciate  the  labor- 
saving  features  of  modern  office  equipment,  and  little  effort  is  being 
made  by  dealers  in  office  supplies  to  introduce  office  machinery  and 
filing  cases.  American  typewriters  are  used  more  than  European 
makes,  and  most  of  the  standard  American  typewriters  are  repre¬ 
sented  and  stocked  in  Singapore. 

Calculating  machines. — In  Netherlands  Indies  before  the  war  there 
were  many  calculating  machines  in  use  built  on  the  circular  system 
and  principally  manufactured  in  Germany.  During  the  last  few 
years  American  machines  have  been  imported  and  a  steady  and 
growing  business  has  developed.  In  adding  machines  the  listing 
and  adding  machine  is  in  greater  demand. 

Very  few  adding  or  calculating  machines  are  used  in  British 
Malaya.  There  has  been  very  little  effort  made  to  show  the  business 
men  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  their  use. 

Cash  registers. — A  popular  American  cash  register  is  well  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  and  the  trade  is  principally  in  the 
more  expensive  types.  In  British  Malaya,  however,  only  a  few 
cash  registers  are  in  use,  the  large  department  stores  and  business 
houses  using  the  old-fashioned  cash  drawers. 

Billing  machines. — One  make  of  billing  machine  is  represented 
in  Java,  and  several  have  been  put  into  use  by  the  sugar  mills. 
There  is  a  prospect  for  the  development  of  considerable  business  for 
this  type  of  machine.  No  machines  of  this  kind  are  in  use  in  Brit¬ 
ish  Malaya,  although  there  are  many  lines  of  business  where  they 
would  effect  a  great  saving  in  time  and  increase  efficiency  materially. 

Addressing  machines. — Direct  advertising  by  mail  has  not  been 
developed  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  but  this  form  of  appeal  is  re¬ 
ceiving  some  attention.  One  office-equipment  house  stocks  an  Ameri¬ 
can  addressing  machine,  but  few  sales  have  been  made. 

The  use  of  addressing  machines  in  British  Malaya  has  made  but 
little  headway.  The  retail  business  is  done  almost  entirely  by  the 
Chinese,  and  for  this  reason  the  mailing  lists  of  the  import  houses 
are  small. 

Duplicating  machines. — A  British  mimeographing  machine  has 
been  on  the  Netherlands  Indies  market  for  many  years,  and  the 
business  houses,  banks,  and  leading  brokers  have  become  somewhat 
accustomed  to  its  use.  An  American  make  has  recently  been  intro¬ 
duced  here,  and  a  sales  campaign  along  modern  lines  is  being  car¬ 
ried  on  for  its  introduction. 

One  British  manufacturer  of  duplicating  machines  maintains  a 
branch  retail  establishment  in  Singapore.  This  machine  is  well 
introduced.  No  American  duplicating  machine  is  effectively  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  field. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


343 


Filing  systems. — A  stock  of  popular  American  filing  cabinets  is 
carried  in  Soerabaya  and  smaller  stocks  of  other  makes  in  Batavia. 
The  Government  has  begun  to  equip  some  of  its  departments  in  a 
small  way  with  these  metal  cases,  and  as  the  business  community 
comes  to  understand  the  advantages  of  the  vertical  system  of  filing 
a  good  market  should  develop.  At  the  present  time  the  trade  is  in 
its  earliest  stages,  and  a  competitor  of  the  American  equipment  has 
developed  in  the  Chinese  locally  made  cabinets  of  hardwood.  Most 
of  the  banks  and  business  houses  are  either  using  the  old-style  card¬ 
board  post  files  or  bind  their  letters  in  the  form  of  a  book  as  they 
are  received.  This  is  very  laborious  and  permits  of  only  the  widest 
classification.  Outgoing  letters  go  into  copy  books.  The  prejudice 
in  favor  of  old  ways  is  still  strong,  but  is  gradually  being  overcome 
by  the  pressure  of  work  on  the  European  staffs  and  the  fact  that 
natives  are  not  being  trained  for  the  work  in  the  ratio  of  the  increase 
of  business. 

In  British  Malaya  the  Chinese-made  wooden  vertical  filing  cabinet 
is  in  competition  with  the  metal  cabinet,  but  most  houses  still  use 
the  cardboard-box  filing  system. 

British  Malaya  is  a  very  promising  field  for  office  equipment  of  all 
kinds,  as  there  has  been  scarcely  any  effort  made  to  supply  it.  The 
few  companies  handling  office  equipment  either  lack  the  desire  or  the 
trained  men  to  push  sales.  The  kind  of  salesmanship  that  has  been 
used  to  develop  the  business  in  the  United  States,  modified  to  suit  the 
local  peculiarities,  will  bring  good  results,  as  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  business  done,  and  under  normal  conditions  profits  are  ample  and 
skilled  labor  is  scarce. 

SCHOOL  SUPPLIES. 

There  are  a  few  schools  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  conducted 
by  various  missionary  societies  and  supported  partly  by  Government 
appropriations.  While  these  are  important,  they  are  comparatively 
few,  and  do  not  offer  an  attractive  field  for  the  sale  of  school  sup¬ 
plies.  The  Government  schools,  on  the  other  hand,  are  scattered 
throughout  the  colony  and  their  development  will  require  a  con¬ 
stantly  growing  quantity  of  supplies.  These  schools  are  under  the 
control  of  the  Department  of  Education  and  Religion  (Onderwijs 
en  Eeredienst),  within  which  is  the  Council  of  Education  (Onder- 
wijsraad),  to  which  all  matters  of  school  method  and  equipment 
are  referred  before  adoption.  The  active  members  of  this  council 
are  two  delegated  members  (gedelegeerde  leden),  who  are  profes¬ 
sional  educators  and  students  of  educational  methods  in  other  coun¬ 
tries,  especially  in  the  oriental  Tropics.  These  delegated  members 
have  studied  the  educational  methods  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and 
are  planning  to  adapt  some  of  them  to  their  requirements.  They 
were  specially  impressed  with  the  industrial  education  and  physical 
instruction  carried  on  in  those  islands.  They  wish  to  apply  every 
modern  equipment  consistent  with  efficiency  to  their  schools,  and  the 
receipt  of  catalogues  from  manufacturers  of  school  equipment,  with 
prices  and  full  particulars  as  to  their  adaptability  to  their  purposes, 
would  be  very  welcome. 


344  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  supplies  needed  comprise  school  furniture,  including  desks 
and  benches,  blackboards,  maps,  and  scientific  charts  of  all  descrip¬ 
tions  with  Dutch  characters;  equipment  for  all  phases  of  industrial 
education;  athletic  goods;  educational  lantern  slides;  projection 
lanterns  (electric  and  carbide);  educational  moving-picture  films; 
projectors  for  ordinary  pictures;  reproductions  of  classical  statues 
in  clay;  and  photographic  reproductions  of  works  of  art. 

It  would  be  unsafe  to  assume  that  the  education  in  this  colony  can 
compare  favorably  with  that  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  figures 
of  attendance  are  large  and  imply  a  greater  development  than  has 
actually  taken  place.  School  equipment  is  most  limited  in  the 
schools  of  the  second  class  (native  primary  schools,  which  have  the 
largest  number  of  pupils).  It  is  made  locally  by  the  Chinese  and 
consists  of  benches  and  desks,  a  table  for  the  teacher,  and  black¬ 
boards.  The  extent  of  the  teaching  is  the  most  elementary  arithme¬ 
tic  and  a  little  reading  and  writing  of  the  language  of  the  district. 

There  are  several  private  schools  in  the  Straits  Settlements  par¬ 
tially  supported  by  the  Government,  and  throughout  the  Straits 
Settlements  and  the  Federated  Malay  States  there  are  schools  for  the 
natives.  The  equipment  for  the  better  class  schools  is  modeled 
somewhat  after  English  patterns,  much  of  it  being  made  locally. 
There  is  very  little  equipment  for  the  native  schools. 

HOSPITAL  SUPPLIES. 

The  bulk  of  the  supplies  fqr  the  hospitals  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  is  purchased  through  the  Colonial  Department  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  which  maintains  a  purchasing  bureau  at  The  Hague  and  a 
branch  at  17  Battery  Place,  New  York.  Large  stocks  of  staple  sup¬ 
plies  are  carried  in  the  Netherlands.  There  is  no  regulation  which 
requires  that  supplies  shall  be  bought  through  this  agency,  and  the 
administrators  of  the  hospitals  in  the  colony  are  free  to  make  their 
purchases  direct  from  manufacturers. 

The  inspector  of  pharmacy  and  chemicals  makes  the  requisitions 
for  all  purchases  for  his  department  and  in  many  cases  when  order¬ 
ing  supplies  specifies  the  maker  and  the  catalogue  number  of  ma¬ 
terials  required.  When  mailing  catalogues  or  other  sales  literature 
to  the  directors  of  hospitals,  copies  should  also  be  sent  to  the  in¬ 
spector,  together  with  full  information  as  to  prices  and  the  channels 
through  which  the  merchandise  may  be  procured. 

Before  orders  are  placed  for  new  types  of  hospital  equipment 
they  are  referred  to  a  board  of  advisers  made  up  of  doctors  in  charge 
of  hospitals. 

The  medical  doctors  in  the  Government  hospitals  read  the  Ameri¬ 
can  medical  journals  and  journals  devoted  to  hospital  service  and 
are  much  interested  in  the  equipment  described  in  articles  and  ad¬ 
vertisements.  Manufacturers  will  find  them  interested  in  catalogues 
sent,  and,  as  the  directors  of  the  hospitals  may  initiate  orders,  direct 
business  may  result. 

All  of  the  estates  in  the  Sumatra  East  Coast  Residency  either  have 
hospitals  in  connection  with  their  property  or  are  joined  with  other 
estates  for  the  maintenance  of  hospitals.  All  estates  keep  some  first- 
aid  supplies  on  hand. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


345 


In  British  Malaya  all  of  the  estates  employing  British  Indian 
labor  are  required  by  law  to  maintain  a  hospital,  either  alone  or  in 
combination  with  other  estates,  to  accommodate  its  sick  coolies,  and 
to  employ  a  qualified  doctor  to  supervise  it.  Besides  these  hospitals, 
most  of  which  are  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  there  are  many 
State-supported  and  private  hospitals  at  the  population  centers. 
The  doctors  are  all  British  subjects. 

CLOTHING. 

MEN’S  CLOTHING  AND  HABERDASHERY. 

On  account  of  the  extreme  heat  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  men 
wear  wash  clothes  in  the  daytime  exclusively.  White  drill  and  some 
linen  are  worn.  For  common  wear  khaki  drill  is  used  to  some  extent 
on  the  plantations  and  for  rough  work.  These  suits  are  made  locally, 
mostly  by  Chinese  tailors,  although  the  wealthier  classes  patronize 
the  European  tailors. 

White  is  a  usual  costume  for  evening  wear,  but  most  men  have  a 
light-weight  unlined  serge  or  gaberdine  coat,  which  is  worn  in  the 
late  afternoons  and  evenings,  except  on  formal  occasions,  when  full- 
dress  or  dinner  jackets  are  worn.  The  adult  Dutch  are  not  athlet¬ 
ically  inclined,  so,  unlike  British  Malaya,  there  is  but  little  call  for 
sport  clothes. 

Several  European  tailors  in  each  of  the  larger  towns  carry  stocks 
of  cloth,  and  some  of  the  shops  carry  ready-made  coats  of  sport 
models. 

A  considerable  business  is  done  in  outfits  for  men  returning  to 
Europe  on  furlough. 

There  is  a  steady  trade  in  light-weight  underwear  in  medium  and 
large  sizes  for  the  European  population  and  a  very  large  trade  in 
small  sizes  of  cheap  cotton  undershirts  for  the  native  trade. 

Many  American  manufactures  making  up  the  sundries  in  haber¬ 
dashery  are  generally  stocked  throughout  the  colony. 

Men’s  garters  with  silk  fabric  are  not  to  be  bought  except  in  the 
shops  catering  to  the  best  trade,  but  the  cotton-fabric  garters  are  sold 
in  the  Chinese  shops  and  by  the  peddlers.  These  are  bought  not  only 
by  the  European  population  but  by  the  Chinese  and  many  of  the 
better  class  of  natives. 

Socks. — White  cotton  socks  are  the  large  staple  in  the  trade.  A 
fairly  good  quality  is  required,  although  there  is  some  trade  in  the 
cheapest  qualities.  Silk  socks  are  not  usually  worn,  although  there 
is  some  trade,  and  it  could  be  extended  if  good  qualities  were  to  be 
marketed  at  reasonable  prices.  The  British  Indian  factories  are 
competing  for  this  trade  with  a  very  light-weight  silk  sock  of  poor 
quality. 

Shirts  and  collars. — There  is  a  fairly  steady,  small  market  for 
ready-made  shirts  in  all  sizes  in  white  or  with  conservative  markings, 
in  medium  and  large  sizes  for  the  European  trade  and  small  sizes 
for  the  Chinese  trade.  Most  of  the  shirts  sold  are  made  to  order  by 
the  local  tailors. 

Neckwear. — Only  cheap  qualities  are  displayed  by  the  local  haber¬ 
dashers,  and  these  are  very  poorly  made.  There  is  a  small  potential 
market  for  medium-priced  American  neckwear,  but  this  can  not  be 


346  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

developed  without  the  active  cooperation  of  the  better  class  of  re¬ 
tailers,  who  are  disinclined  to  introduce  new  lines.  Stocks  carried 
are  small. 

Raincoats. — Rubber-treated  raincoats  in  the  full  range  of  men’s 
and  women’s  styles  find  a  steady  sale  in  the  rainy  season.  They  are 
stocked  principally  by  the  European-owned  department  stores  in 
the  larger  cities  and  towns. 

In  British  Malaya  white  suits  are  worn  by  the  men  during  the 
day  and  generally  in  the  evening.  These  are  made  of  fairly  good 
cotton  drill  and  tailored  by  the  Chinese.  The  British  residents  are 
devoted  to  athletics,  and  by  4.30  or  5  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  most 
of  the  male  population  is  on  the  tennis  courts  or  golf  links  or  in  the 
athletic  field  engaged  in  some  sort  of  sport.  This  calls  for  a  wide 
range  of  sport  clothing  of  a  quality  suited  to  local  conditions, 
namely,  white  flannel  trousers,  sport  coats,  sweaters  and  mufflers  of 
heavy  wool,  and  long  blanket  coats  for  wear  after  the  game. 

The  half-caste  population  dresses  according  to  British  styles,  but 
their  purchasing  capacity  is  smaller  and  cheaper  articles  are  required 
by  them. 

The  better  classes  of  the  younger  element  of  Chinese  dress  in 
European  fashion,  and  many  of  them  are  able  to  buy  the  most  ex¬ 
pensive  articles.  They  are  not  naturally  inclined  toward  athletics. 

Men  of  the  European  community  usually  dress  for  dinner  when 
ladies  are  to  be  present,  and  dinners  afford  a  large  part  of  the 
pleasures  of  the  life  of  these  Tropics.  Dress  suits  are  usually  bought 
during  the  home  leave,  but  dress  collars  and  ties,  shirts,  shoes,  and 
pumps  and  the  other  accessories  to  formal  dress  are  in  constant 
demand. 

For  day  wear  Europeans,  half-castes,  and  the  Chinese  of  all 
classes  above  the  coolies  and  house  bo}7s  wear  either  a  sola  topee  or 
a  double  felt  hat,  although  the  latter  is  more  generally  worn  in  the 
Federated  Malay  States  for  plantation  work.  The  sola  topee  is 
made  in  England  and  some  of  the  pith  variety  in  India.  The  double 
felt  hats  come  from  England. 

Soft  felt  hats  in  a  narrow  range  of  medium  qualities  are  on  sale 
in  the  department  stores  and  European-owned  stores  catering  espe¬ 
cially  to  men. 

Outside  the  above-mentioned  shops,  few  stocks  of  haberdashery 
are  carried. 

WOMEN’S  WEAR. 

In  the  Netherlands  Indies  lingerie,  hats,  corsets,  and  other  ladies’ 
wear  are  sold  by  the  European  department  stores  and  shops  cater¬ 
ing  especially  to  women.  There  is  a  considerable  import  of  lingerie, 
gowns,  and  hats  from  Paris  and  other  European  fashion  centers, 
and  the  demand  for  the  better  class  of  trade  catered  to  by  these 
shops  is  for  the  first  qualities,  both  in  made-up  garments  and  in 
sundries. 

The  manager  of  one  of  the  biggest  retail  organizations  in  Java, 
which  has  an  annual  turnover  running  into  millions  of  florins,  spoke 
of  the  difficulty  of  buying  in  the  American  market,  due  to  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  depending  for  selection  of  styles  on  the  seller,  as  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  definite  orders  on  account  of  changes  in  styles. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


347 


An  American  exporting  house  that  studies  this  trade  and  is  able 
to  demonstrate  its  ability  to  cooperate  with  its  Java  customer  in 
selection  of  materials  and  styles  could  secure  liberal  orders. 

The  department  stores  of  Singapore,  Penang,  Kuala  Lumpur,  and 
Ipoh  are  the  principal  stockists  of  ladies’  wear.  The  number  of 
European  women  is  small  as  compared  with  the  male  European  pop¬ 
ulation.  There  is  a  small  number  of  European  dressmakers,  besides 
a  large  number  of  half-caste,  Chinese,  and  British  Indian  dress¬ 
makers  and  ladies’  tailors.  The  British  Indian  shops  carry  stocks 
of  such  dress  furnishings  as  are  made  in  the  Orient. 

Some  shops  cater  especially  to  the  Chinese  women,  whose  require¬ 
ments  in  style  and  general  design  of  garments  is  radically  different 
from  those  of  the  European  women. 

BOOTS,  SHOES,  AND  SHOEMAKERS’  SUPPLIES. 

The  department  stores  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  carry  small 
stocks  of  shoes  of  cheap  and  medium  qualities,  buying  from  French, 
British,  and  American  factories.  Retail  prices  are  high,  quality  con¬ 
sidered,  and  the  volume  of  sales  is  thereby  restricted,  as  the  buyers 
can  always  go  to  the  Chinese  shoemakers,  whose  prices  are  low,  al¬ 
though  there  is  much  to  be  desired  in  the  quality  and  style  of  their 
product. 

Low  white  canvas  shoes  are  in  greatest  demand,  but  the  Chinese 
also  make  leather  shoes  in  various  patterns. 

A  few  shops  which  cater  to  women  carry  fancy  slippers  and  small 
stocks  of  fine  shoes,  one  factory  in  Batavia  making  fancy  shoes  for 
women,  largely  on  order. 

One  American  manufacturer  of  rubber-soled  canvas  shoes  has  had 
a  moderate  initial  success  in  introducing  his  product  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Indies.  These  shoes  are  in  good  lasts  and  their  general  appear¬ 
ance  is  attractive.  They  would  undoubtedly  find  a  ready  sale  at  a 
price  permitting  a  fair  profit,  but  the  dealers  are  able  to  add  large 
profits,  with  a  resultant  restriction  of  the  volume  of  business  done. 

For  men’s  leather  shoes  the  European  element  of  the  population  of 
British  Malaya  draws  on  the  department  stores,  as  does  the  wealthier 
class  of  Chinese,  while  most  of  the  white  canvas  and  leather  shoes  of 
a  cheaper  quality  worn  by  all  classes  of  the  shoe-wearing  public  are 
made  by  the  Chinese  shoemakers. 

British  factories  supply  most  of  the  leather  shoes  worn,  as  well  as 
the  imported  white  canvas  shoes,  although  American  shoes  are  seen 
in  most  of  the  stocks.  In  leather  goods  a  stout  tan  calf,  Goodyear- 
welt,  single  and  double  sole  shoe,  is  in  greatest  demand.  Few  fine 
shoes  are  stocked,  but  medium-priced  vici  kid  shoes  in  tans,  browns, 
and  black  are  stocked,  mostly  in  low  bluchers  and  vals,  and  some 
black  calf.  There  is  a  good  demand  for  turned  patent-leather  pumps 
of  a  medium  quality. 

European  retailers  stock  white  canvas  McKay-sewed  shoes  regu¬ 
larly,  but  no  canvas  Goodyear-welt  shoes.  The  canvas  shoes  made 
by  the  Chinese  shoemakers  are  more  serviceable  than  the  imported 
stock,  although  they  have  but  little  style.  There  is  a  steady  demand 
for  golf,  football,  and  tennis  shoes  of  the  type  used  in  England. 

Medium  qualities  of  women’s  shoes  are  stocked  by  the  department 
stores  of  British  Malaya,  but  there  is  a  distinct  lack  of  style  in  the 


348  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

lasts  and  patterns.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  white  canvas 
shoes,  which  are  generally  worn,  except  on  dress  occasions,  on  account 
of  their  greater  coolness,  and  the  Chinese  shoemakers  get  a  large  part 
of  this  business. 

There  is  ample  wealth  in  British  Malaya  to  warrant  the  carrying 
of  stocks  of  a  much  better  grade  than  are  carried  at  present.  The 
policy  of  the  retail  merchants  in  stocking  only  such  styles  and 
qualities  of  shoes  as  have  been  called  for  in  the  past  is  responsible 
for  the  lack  of  a  demand  for  a  fair  proportion  of  high-grade  shoes, 
and  when  a  more  progressive  type  of  merchandising  is  introduced 
the  trade  for  fine  American  shoes  should  develop,  as  it  has  already 
done  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in  Shanghai  and  the  North 
China  ports. 

It  will  be  difficult  to  induce  wholesale  importers  to  stock  any  but 
the  styles  and  lasts  used  in  the  past,  and  salesmen  in  making  up 
sample  assortments  should  include  full  lines  of  conservative  styles 
of  British  lasts,  although  they  may  be  able  to  place  small  orders 
for  grades  better  in  style  and  quality. 

Shoemakers’  supplies. — The  Chinese  shoemakers  get  their  supplies 
of  sundries  through  the  British  importing  houses,  who  buy  from 
British  markets. 

Leather. — iN’o  figures  of  imports  by  countries  are  available  later 
than  1920,  and  imports  of  that  year  can  not  be  taken  as  a  criterion 
for  the  present  trade.  In  that  year  imports  of  “  leather  wear  ” 
(which  includes  shoes  and  shoe  leather)  into  the  Straits  Settlements 
were  valued  at  S$l,856,632  (Straits  dollars).  Of  this  amount,  im¬ 
ports  to  the  value  of  S$215,062  came  from  the  United  States, 
S$734,964  from  the  United  Kingdom,  S$489,325  from  Australia, 
S$139,466  from  British  India  and  Burma,  S$87,708  from  Japan,  and 
S$40,150  from  Hongkong.  From  trade  sources  it  is  learned  that  a 
considerable  part  of  the  upper  leather  is  still  coming  from  the  United 
States  and  most  of  the  sole  leather  from  England.  - 

TRAVELING  BAGS. 

German,  Austrian,  and  English  leather  traveling  bags  are  stocked 
by  the  department  stores  and  men’s  clothing  dealers  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  East  Indies.  Some  of  these  are  of  fairly  good  material  and 
well  made,  while  many  of  them  are  of  a  medium  quality.  Suit¬ 
cases,  cloth  and  leather  lined,  with  and  without  toilet  sets,  and  kit 
bags  of  various  shapes  cover  the  range  carried  by  the  men’s  furnish¬ 
ing  houses,  and  the  department  stores  handle  in  addition  small  suit¬ 
case-shaped  leather  and  fiber  boxes,  which  are  used  for  carrying 
documents.  There  is  a  very  good  sale  of  bags  made  of  woven 
stripped  rattan  with  leather  trimmings.  Most  of  these  come  from 
Japan.  The  Indian  (British  East  Indian)  shops  stock  Japanese 
leather  bags  of  poor  quality,  as  well  as  Japanese  cheap  matting 
suitcases. 

There  are  a  few  American  fiber  trunks  offered  by  one  department 
store  in  Batavia  at  prices  which  involve  a  very  handsome  profit. 
The  trunk  trade  is  held  by  European  makes  that  are  not  comparable 
with  American  trunks  in  any  way.  Some  European-made  wardrobe 
trunks  of  flimsy  construction  are  offered  for  sale  at  high  prices  by 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES. 


349 


the  department  stores.  There  is  a  large  sale  for  the  ordinary  Eu¬ 
ropean-made  box  trunks  with  one  tray,  steamer  trunks  with  one 
tray,  and  ladies’  hatboxes. 

A  sheet-iron  box  with  three  locks  and  sliding  bolt,  without  trays, 
is  stocked  in  various  sizes  by  the  department  stores  and  Chinese 
shops  for  the  popular  trade.  These  boxes  come  from  Europe  and 
are  used  by  all  classes,  being  rat  proof  and  very  convenient  for 
traveling  in  the  Tropics. 

The  quality  and  design  of  the  American  fiber  trunks  appeal  to 
the  trade  in  this  colony,  but  the  sale  is  slow  at  the  prices  asked. 

In  British  Malaya  the  better  class  department  stores  at  the  centers 
of  population  stock  a  full  range  of  British-made  traveling  bags  and 
boxes,  and  the  British  India  and  Japanese  shops  stock  Japanese 
bags.  The  natives,  Chinese,  and  many  Europeans  when  traveling- 
in  the  Tropics  use  the  sheet-iron  boxes  previously  mentioned. 

PURCHASING  DIVISIONS. 

The  Bureau  of  Public  Works  (Department  der  Burgerlijks  Open- 
bare  Werken,  commonly  called  B.  O.W.  in  the  colony),  located  at 
Batavia,  constructs  all  engineering  works  in  the  Outer  Possessions, 
with  the  exception  of  districts  which  have  developed  a  capacity  either 
as  municipalities  or  residencies  to  handle  their  own  affairs.  The  pur¬ 
chases  for  the  B.  O.  W.  are  nominally  made  through  the  Purchasing 
Bureau  of  the  Department  of  the  Colonies  of  the  Netherlands  Gov¬ 
ernment,  but  it  has  the  right  to  specify  the  material  to  be  bought,  and 
if  it  can  be  obtained  within  the  colony  the  function  of  the  Purchasing 
Office  is  merely  nominal.  The  divisions  controlling  the  purchases 
are  as  follows:  Afdeeling  A,  buildings  (schools,  hospitals,  etc.); 
Afdeeling  B,  roads  and  bridges;  Afdeeling  E,  irrigation;  Afdeeling 
G,  drinking  water  and  sewerage ;  Afdeeling  H,  harbors. 

In  Java  and  Madoera  and  in  the  self-governing  districts  and 
municipalities  of  the  Outer  Possessions  the  road  works,  waterworks, 
and  sewer  systems  are  built  by  the  local  governments,  unless  they 
ask  the  aid  of  the  Central  Government.  The  harbor  works,  irriga¬ 
tion  works,  and  schools,  hospitals,  and  prisons  are  all  built  by  the 
Central  Government,  while  the  municipalities  and  residencies  con¬ 
struct  their  administrative  buildings.  The  self-governing  divisions 
are  listed  below.  In  each  case  the  officials  to  be  addressed  or  con¬ 
sulted  are  given. 

Residency  of  Bantam,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Residency  of  Batavia.  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Batavia,  Java  : 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Meester  Cornelis,  Batavia,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Buitenzorg,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 


350  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  Preanger  Regencies,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Bandoeng,  Preanger,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Soekaboemi,  Preanger,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Cheribon,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Cheribon,  Cheribon,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Pekalongan,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Pekalongan,  Pekalongan,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Tegal,  Pekalongan,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Semarang: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Semarang: 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

If  the  attention  of  the  Director  of  Waterworks  is  desired,  address  the 
Director  of  Municipal  Waterworks. 

Municipality  of  Salatiga,  Semarang,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Rembang,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Residency  of  Soerabaya,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Soerabaya,  Soerabaya,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

If  the  attention  of  the  Director  of  the  Waterworks  is  desired,  address  the 
Director  of  Waterworks. 

Municipality  of  Modjokerto,  Soerabaya,  Java :  To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the 
Government  of  the  District  of  Modjokerto. 

Residency  of  Madoera,  Madoera : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Government  Works. 

Residency  of  Pasoeroean,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Government  Works. 

Municipality  of  Pasoeroean,  Pasoeroean,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Government  of  the  District  of  Pasoeroean. 
To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Malang,  Pasoeroean,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works  and  Waterworks. 

Municipality  of  Probolinggo,  Pasoeroean,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Government  of  the  District  of  Probolinggo. 
To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Besoeki,  Java  : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 


IMPORT  COMMODITIES, 


351 


Residency  of  Banjoemas,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Residency  of  Kedoe,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Magelang,  Kedoe,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Residency  of  Madioen,  Java :  To  the  Honorable  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 
Municipality  of  Madioen,  Madioen,  Java :  To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  District  of  Madioen. 

Residency  of  Kediri,  Java: 

To  the  Honorable  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Provincial  Works. 

Municipality  of  Kediri,  Kediri,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Blitar,  Kediri,  Java : 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Principality  of  Soerakarta,  Java:  To  the  Honorable  Resident  (send  duplicate 
of  engineering  data  and  state  that  it  is  for  the  engineer  in  charge  of  public 
works ) . 

Principality  of  Djokjakarta,  Java:  To  the  Honorable  Resident  (send  duplicate 
of  engineering  data  and  state  that  it  is  for  the  engineer  in  charge  of  public 
works) . 

Municipality  of  Padangpandjang,  Sumatra  West  Coast,  Sumatra:  To  the 
Honorable  Chief  of  the  Government  of  the  District  of  Padangpandjang. 
Municipality  of  Fort  de  Kock,  Sumatra  West  Coast,  Sumatra :  To  the  Honor¬ 
able  Chief  of  the  Government  of  the  District  of  Padangpandjang. 
Municipality  of  Sawah  Loento,  Sumatra  West  Coast,  Sumatra :  To  the  Honor¬ 
able  Chief  of  the  Government  of  the  District  of  Padangpandjang. 
Municipality  of  Palembang,  Palembang,  Sumatra : 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

The  self-governing  district  of  Ogan  Ilir,  Palembang,  Sumatra:  To  the  Honor¬ 
able  Controller. 

The  self-governing  district  of  Komering  Ilir,  Palembang,  Sumatra :  To  the 
Honorable  Controller. 

The  self-governing  district  of  Lematang  Ilir,  Palembang,  Sumatra :  To  the  Hon¬ 
orable  Controller. 

Residency  of  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra: 

To  the  Honorable  Governor. 

To  the  Director  of  Local  Works. 

Municipality  of  Medan,  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra: 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Tebingtinggi,  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra : 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Local  Government  of  Tebingtinggi. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Bindjai,  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra : 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Local  Government  of  the  Underdistrict  of 
Upper  Langkat. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Tandjoengbalai,  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra : 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Local  Government  of  the  District  of  Asahan. 
To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Pematang  Si  Antar,  Sumatra  East  Coast,  Sumatra: 

To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Local  Government  of  the  Division  of  Si- 
moloengoen  and  Karoland  (send  duplicates  for  the  engineer). 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Band jerma sin,  Southern  Borneo,  Borneo :  To  the  Honorable 
Chief  of  the  Local  Government  of  the  District  of  Bandjermasin. 
Municipality  of  Menado,  Menado,  Celebes :  To  the  Honorable  Chief  of  the  Local 
Government  (send  duplicate  for  the  engineer). 

To  the  self-governing  district  of  Minahasa,  Menado,  Celebes:  To  the  Honor¬ 
able  Chief  of  the  Provincial  Government  (send  duplicate  for  the  engineer). 


352 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


Municipality  of  Macassar,  Celebes: 

To  the  Honorable  Burgemeester. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Municipality  of  Padang,  Sumatra  West  Coast,  Sumatra: 

To  the  Honorable  Assistant  Resident. 

To  the  Director  of  Municipal  Works. 

Other  departments  of  the  Government  influencing  purchases  are 
the  following: 

Departement  van  Landbouw,  Nijverheid  en  Handel  (Department  of  Agriculture, 
Industry  and  Commerce),  Afdeeling  C,  Bureau  2  (Division  C,  Bureau  2)  : 
Chemical  fertilizers,  chemicals  and  equipment  for  laboratories,  agricultural 
machinery  and  implements. 

Departement  van  Gouvernements  bedrijven  (Department  of  Government  Indus¬ 
tries)  : 

Hoofdbestuur  van  den  Post,  Telegraafen  en  Telefoondienst  (Head  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Posts,  Telegraphs,  and  Telephone  Services). 

Dienstvak  Telegrafie,  Afdeeling  Techniek  der  Draad  Telegraphie  (Service 
branch  of  telegraphs ;  Technical  division  of  telegraph  wires ;  Interurban 
and  interprovincial)  :  Telegraph  and  telephone  wires  and  equipment, 
cable  ship  supplies,  shop  supplies,  autobusses  and  supplies,  radio  supplies, 
telephone  and  telegraph  central  and  relay  station  supplies. 

Dienstvak  Telefonie,  Afdeeling  Techniek  der  Telefonie  (Service  branch  of 
telephones,  Technical  Division)  :  Same  as  above  for  local  and  district 
telephones. 

Hoofdbureau  van  het  Mijnwegen  (Head  Bureau  of  Mines)  :  Instruments 
for  assaying  and  surveying,  mining  machinery,  and  supplies.  Under  this 
bureau  are  the  Banka  tin  mines ;  Ombilin  coal  mines ;  Poeloe  Laoet  coal 
mines ;  Boekit  Asem  coal  mines ;  geological  survey  of  the  Malili  District 
of  Celebes,  and  other  research  work,  including  investigations  in  Atjeh, 
New  Guinea,  Riouw,  and  Timor;  the  Benkoelen  gold  mines. 

Landsdrukkerij  (Government  Printers)  :  Printing  and  lithographing  ma¬ 
chinery  and  supplies  of  all  kinds. 

Staatsspoor  en  Tramwegen  (State  Railways  and  Tramways)  :  Railway 
supplies  of  all  kinds. 

Dienst  voor  Waterkracht  en  Electriciteit  (Service  for  Hydro  and  Hydro¬ 
electric  Power)  :  Surveying  instruments,  machinery,  and  supplies  of  all 
kinds. 

Departement  van  Onderwijs  en  Eredienst  (Department  of  Education  and 
Religion)  : 

Onderwijsraad  (Council  of  Education)  :  School  supplies. 

6d  Afdeeling  (6th  Division)  :  Drugs,  supplies,  surgical  instruments,  and 
hospital  supplies. 

Leger  of  Departement  van  Oorlog  (Army,  or  Department  of  War)  :  Army 
supplies. 

Some  of  these  departments  make  their  purchases  direct  from 
abroad,  and  all  may  purchase  highly  technical  materials  direct  if 
there  are  reasons  to  believe  that  their  technical  knowledge  is  neces¬ 
sary  for  purchasing,  and  they  may  purchase  materials  from  stocks  in 
the  Netherlands  Indies  or  stocks  afloat  destined  for  the  colony,  but 
otherwise  purchases  must  be  made  through  the  Purchasing  Division 
of  the  Department  of  the  Colonies  of  the  Netherlands,  located  at 
The  Hague,  with  branches  at  New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Bandoeng, 
Java. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 

CURRENCY. 


/ 


The  Dutch  monetary  system  was  introduced  into  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  in  May,  1854.  The  coins  in  use  are :  Gold  5  and  10 
florin  (guilder)  pieces,  and  silver  2-J,  1,  and  one-half  florin  pieces. 
Subsidiary  coins  are  25  and  10  cent  pieces  of  silver,  5-cent  nickel 
coins,  and  copper  coins  of  2J,  1,  and  one-half  cent  value.  Subsidiary 
coins  are  legal  tender  to  a  limited  extent  only. 

The  monetary  system  is  based  on  gold.  The  standard  unit  of 
value  in  the  United  States  is  the  gold  dollar  containing  25.8  grains 
of  gold,  900  fine,  while  the  10-florin  piece  contains  103.703  grains  of 
a  similar  fineness.  Thus  the  mint  value  of  the  florin  is  40.195  cents 
in  United  States  currency,  or  2.4879  florins  equal  $1. 

Under  the  coinage  act  the  value  of  the  florin  (silver)  was  fixed 
at  one-tenth  of  the  gold  10-florin  piece,  and  in  order  to  maintain 
the  silver  coinage  at  a  full  legal-tender  value  the  minting  of  silver 
coins  was  put  under  certain  restrictions.  Gold  and  silver  coins  are 
legal  tender  to  any  amount. 

The  increase  in  the  gold  price  of  silver  during  the  later  years  of 
the  last  decade  made  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  silver  coins  higher 
than  their  legal-tender  value.  This  led  to  a  scarcity  of  coins  which 
was  met  by  the  issue  of  paper  notes  by  the  colonial  government  of 
2^-florin  and  1-florin  value,  which  was  well  received  by  the  public. 

Excepting  these  small  notes,  the  Bank  of  Java  enjoys  the  monop¬ 
oly  of  issuing  paper  money  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  Its 
notes  command  general  confidence  and  are  legal  tender.  The  amount 
of  gold  in  circulation  is  limited,  and  natives  frequently  refuse  gold 
and  accept  bank  notes  in  preference,  in  marked  distinction  from  the 
native  practice  in  British  India,  where  the  hoarding  of  metallic 
coin  by  the  natives  has  proved  embarrassing  to  the  Government  and 
a  great  economic  loss  to  the  country. 

On  March  14,  1922,  the  bank’s  selling  rates  for  cable  transfer  were 
quoted  by  newspapers  as  follows:  Netherlands,  1-|  per  cent  discount; 
London,  11.80  florins  to  1  pound  sterling;  United  States,  2.75  florins 
to  $1.  In  1919  the  American  dollar  was  quoted  at  2.67  florins,  or 
at  a  premium  of  about  7  per  cent  above  mint  par,  tending  to  encour¬ 
age  exports  to  the  United  States,  but  acting  as  a  sort  of  tariff  wall 
against  imports  from  the  United  States.  Ordinarily  shipments  of 
gold  would  be  made  to  the  United  States  and  exchange  would  be 
kept  at  or  near  the  gold  export  point,  but  at  that  time  such  ship¬ 
ments  were  prohibited  by  the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies. 

There  is  in  Java  no  very  marked  seasonal  movement  in  exchange 
such  as  is  seen  in  normal  times  in  British  India,  but  perhaps  the 

353 


354  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

months  during  which  the  supply  of  export  bills  is  smallest  are 
January  to  May.  Rates  are  quoted  daily  by  the  individual  banks. 
Exchange  fluctuations  are  trifling.  The  dollar  exchange  is  influ¬ 
enced  by  the  London-New  York  cross  rate.  In  normal  times  Ameri¬ 
can  merchants  doing  business  with  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
need  hardly  concern  themselves  with  it. 

BANKS. 

The  banking  system  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  radiates  to  all 
the  islands  where  there  is  any  considerable  volume  of  business  and 
touches  every  phase  of  native  and  foreign  life.  The  strictly  Govern¬ 
ment  banks  and  those  under  the  control  or  supervision  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  look  after  the  business  of  the  natives  principally. 

GOVERNMENT  AND  PEOPLE’S  BANKS. 

Perhaps  the  lowliest  bank  in  the  world  is  the  village  rice  bank  of 
the  rice  districts  of  Java.  These  banks  do  not  deal  in  money  but  in 
catties  and  piculs  of  rice,  and  were  formed  for  the  purpose  of  insuring 
a  supply  of  seed  rice  for  the  succeeding  years.  While  these  banks 
are  purely  private  institutions,  they  are  under  the  general  supervi¬ 
sion  of  the  Government.  There  are  also  cooperative  banks  in  the  fish¬ 
ing  districts,  fostered  by  the  Government,  which  guard  the  fisher¬ 
men  from  their  own  extravagances  and  have  been  successful  in  im¬ 
proving  the  condition  of  their  patrons.  Above  these  are  the  finan¬ 
cial  credit  banks,  which  are  run  somewhat  along  the  lines  of  the  vil¬ 
lage  rice  banks,  except  that  they  deal  in  actual  cash  and  make  small 
loans  to  the  farmers  for  the  development  of  agriculture  and  some¬ 
times  to  protect  them  from  the  usurers.  Most  of  these  financial  credit 
banks  have  deposit  accounts  with  the  divisional  or  residency  banks, 
which  are  managed  by  private  individuals  among  the  depositors 
serving  without  pay  and  are  financed  by  the  Government  through  the 
Centrale  Kas,  the  central  bank  of  the  whole  system.  This  latter 
bank  is  financed  entirely  by  the  Government  and,  while  it  has  been 
in  operation  only  a  few  years,  has  made  a  very  good  showing,  not 
only  on  the  balance  sheet  but  in  the  development  of  the  economic 
position  of  the  native  property  holders. 

Besides  the  above  there  are  the  State  Insurance  Bank,  the  Post 
Office  Savings  Bank,  the  Dutch  Civil  Servants’  Widows  and  Orphans 
Fund,  and  the  Military  and  Civil  Servants’  Widows  and  Orphans 
Fund,  which,  through  their  loans,  stimulate  agriculture  and  indus¬ 
try,  but  in  no  other  way  do  they  touch  commerce. 

Culture  banks . — There  are  several  culture  banks,  organized  spe¬ 
cially  for  the  purpose  of  providing  money  for  the  development  of 
large  agricultural  enterprises.  These  banks  are  large  buyers  of  ma¬ 
chinery  and  other  supplies  for  the  plantations  and  industrial  under¬ 
takings  under  their  control.  The  principal  culture  banks  are  the 
Nederlandsch-Indische  Landbouw  Maatschappij,  a  subsidiary  of 
the  Nederlandsch-Indische  Handelsbank,  the  Kolonaale  Bank,  the 
Handelsvereeniging  Amsterdam,  the  N.  Y.  Kolonaale  Cultuur  en 
Handelsbank  of  Amsterdam  and  Medan  (Sumatra),  and  the  Cultuur 
Maatschappij  der  Vorstenlanden. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


355 


Mortgage  banks. — The  Nederlandsch-Indische  Effecten  en  Pro- 
longatiebank  does  a  business  in  Batavia  in  shares  and  is  important 
only  locally.  The  Nederlandsche  Hypothekbank  specializes  in  loans 
on  real  estate  and  improvements. 

The  Java  Bank  (J  avasche  Bank). — This  is  the  bank  of  issue  for 
all  paper  currency  except  2-florin,  1-florin,  and  subsidiary  notes,  and 
is  the  discount  bank  of  the  colony.  For  many  years  it  has  advanced 
to  the  Government  money  sufficient  to  cover  the  annual  deficit  and 
in  1919  underwrote  a  Government  loan  which  was  issued  for  the 
purpose  of  liquidating  these  accumulations.  A  statement  given  out 
by  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Government  in  1916  says : 

The  bank  acts  as  cashier  for  the  Government.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  bank  to 
control  both  the  circulation  of  the  coin  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  also  to 
maintain  the  gold  parity  of  the  exchanges  between  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and 
their  neighbors,  and  between  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  Europe.  The  bank, 
therefore,  considers  it  as  its  duty  to  both  buy  and  sell  telegraph  transfers  on 
Holland  or  foreign  countries  and  to  place,  wherever  the  rate  of  exchange  has 
rendered  such  a  proceeding  necessary,  gold  or  silver  at  the  disposal  of  the 
public  for  the  purpose  of  export,  or  to  buy  gold  or  silver  which  has  been  im¬ 
ported  either  from  Holland  or  from  some  foreign  country. 

The  N ederlandsch  Handels  Maatschappij  (commonly  called  the 
“  Factorij  ”)  has  such  wide  financial  interests  that  it  is  difficult  to 
place  it  in  any  particular  class.  It  owns  or  controls  44  of  the  185 
sugar  centrals  of  Java  and  is  financially  interested  in  many  more; 
it  has  interests  in  rubber  and  tobacco  estates,  and  there  is  hardly  a 
new  undertaking  without  this  company  being  in  some  way  interested. 
Its  influence  in  the  foreign  business  of  the  colony  is  very  strong,  as 
it  has,  since  its  inception  in  1824,  been  the  selling  agent  for  the 
Government’s  agricultural  products,  and  as  a  buyer  of  the  manu¬ 
factures  of  the  West  it  leads  in  most  lines.  In  foreign  exchange  it 
exercises  a  strong  influence,  as  it  has  as  a  basis  the  transfers  for  the 
accounts  of  its  own  companies,  which  run  into  very  large  figures. 
In  handling  incoming  bills  it  has  such  a  wide  knowledge  of  local 
credits  and  its  ramifications  are  so  far-reaching  that  it  can  control, 
if  it  wills,  many  of  the  transfers  that  go  at  present  through  other 
channels.  It  is  said  locally  that  the  “  Factorij  ”  and  the  Neder¬ 
landsch-Indische  Handelsbank  “  take  the  cream  off  ”  the  business  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

The  Nederlandscli-Indische  Handelsbank  (commonly  called  the 
“  Handelsbank  ”)  was  originally  a  culture  bank,  but  in  1884  it  trans¬ 
ferred  its  agricultural  interests  to  the  Nederlandsch-Indische  Land- 
bouw  Maatschappij,  most  of  the  stock  of  which  it  held.  Like  the 
“Factorij”  it  has  ramifications  that  touch  many  phases  of  the 
business  and  industrial  life  of  the  colony,  and  this,  with  its  knowl¬ 
edge  of  credits,  makes  it  possible  for  it  to  extend  financial  accommo¬ 
dations  where  another  bank  might  not  safely  do  so.  Both  this  bank 
and  the  “  Factorij  ”  have  offices  in  all  the  large  towns  and  many  of 
the  smaller  ones  throughout  the  archipelago. 

The  Nederlandsch-Indische  Escompto  Maatschappij  (usually  re¬ 
ferred  to  as  the  “  Ecompto  Maatschappij  ”)  claims  to  be  a  purely 
commercial  bank.  It  was  established  in  1857,  being  the  third  bank  in 
age  as  well  as  in  importance  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  has  done 
much  for  the  business  development  of  the  colony.  Its  branches  are  in 
every  considerable  city  and  town. 

10878°— 23 - £4 


356  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  TJnie  Bank  voor  Nederland  en  Colonien  (the  “  Unie  Bank”) 
is  the  smallest  of  the  Dutch  commercial  banks,  but  it  fills  a  large 
place  in  the  business  life  of  the  colony.  A  criticism  often  made  of 
the  banks  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  that  they  do  not  extend  the 
accommodations  that  the  small  but  financially  sound  merchants  are 
entitled  to ;  that  they  will  not  be  bothered  with  small  things,  no  mat¬ 
ter  how  good  the  business  is  otherwise.  In  discussing  matters  of 
credit  the  manager  of  this  bank  gave  the  impression  that  his  com¬ 
pany  makes  a  very  close  study  of  the  minor  credits.  The  “  Unie 
Bank,”  which  has  branches  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  archi¬ 
pelago,  was  established  in  1914. 

The  Internationale  Crediet  en  Handelsvereeniging  “ Rotter¬ 
dam .” — This  bank  is  not  only  a  culture  bank  but  also  an  importing 
and  exporting  house  and  the  agent  for  the  Royal  Dutch  Steamship 
Line  “  Rotterdam  Lloyd.”  It  deals  in  foreign  exchange  and  is  some¬ 
times  an  important  figure  in  the  exchange  market. 

The  Bank  voor  Indie  was  organized  in  1920  to  do  a  general  bank¬ 
ing  business  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  The  formation  of  its 
directorate  indicates  that  Dutch,  Belgian,  and  Swiss  capital  is  inter¬ 
ested  in  it,  the  Dutch  interests  being  held  by  the  Rotterdamsche 
Bankvereeniging. 

FOREIGN  BANKS. 

The  International  Banking  C orporation  has  branches  in  Batavia 
and  in  Soerabaya,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  It  has  corre¬ 
spondents  at  Semarang,  Java,  at  Macassar,  in  the  Celebes,  and  at 
Medan,  Sumatra.  Being  a  subsidiary  of  the  National  City  Bank 
of  New  York,  its  touch  with  the  American  manufacturing  cities  is 
most  thorough.  This  is  the  only  American  bank  in  this  colony  and 
its  success  here  is  very  important  to  America’s  general  commercial 
interests. 

The  Hongkong  &  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation  (Ltd.)  (the 
Hongkong  &  Shanghai  Bank)  is  a  British  corporation  and  one  of 
the  great  financial  powers  of  the  Orient.  Until  the  business  of  this 
colony  was  diverted  into  new  channels  by  the  war  the  Hongkong  and 
Shanghai  Bank  and  the  “  Chartered  Bank  ”  divided  most  of  the  for¬ 
eign  exchange  business  with  the  Dutch  banks  then  existing.  The 
large  British  commercial  interests  here  make  the  presence  of  these 
representative  British  banking  institutions  a  matter  of  prime  impor¬ 
tance,  and  their  relations  with  the  British  mercantile  houses  are 
an  object  lesson  in  teamwork  that  might  be  studied  with  profit  b}^ 
not  only  American  banks  but  by  American  manufacturers  and  ex¬ 
porters.  The  Hongkong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation  has 
branches  in  Batavia,  Soerabaya,  Semarang,  and  Cheribon,  in  Java, 
and  in  the  United  States  has  branches  in  New  York  and  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  and  correspondents  in  most  of  the  cities  throughout  the  manu¬ 
facturing  districts  and  in  other  Pacific  coast  cities. 

The  Chartered  Bank  of  India ,  Australia, ,  and  China  (Ltd.)  (the 
“  Chartered  Bank  ”)  was  the  first  British  bank  to  open  branches  in 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  for  a  long  time  was  the  only  foreign 
bank  in  the  colony.  It  has  branches  in  Batavia  and  Soerabaya,  in 
Java,  and  in  Medan,  Sumatra,  and  correspondents  in  other  cities. 
It  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  its  branch  office  in  New 
York  and  by  the  Anglo  London  and  Paris  National  Bank,  the 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


357 


Bank  of  California,  and  the  Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  in  San 
Francisco,  besides  having  correspondents  in  other  American  cities. 

The  Mercantile  Bank  of  India  has  no  branches  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  but  transacts  business  through  agents  in  the  various  cities 
throughout  the  archipelago. 

The  Yokohama  Specie  Bank  has  branches  in  Batavia  and  Soera¬ 
baya  and  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  its  branches  in  New 
York,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  and  Seattle.  This  bank  handles 
part  of  the  large  business  with  Japan  which  has  developed  during 
the  war,  and  also  finds  considerable  business  with  the  many  Japanese 
who  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  larger  towns  in  the  interior. 

The  Bank  of  Taiwan. — This  bank  has  branches  in  Batavia,  Soera- 
baya,  and  Semarang,  and  is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  its 
branch  house  in  New  York  and  by  correspondents  in  the  principal 
cities.  It  shares  with  the  Yokohama  Specie  Bank  the  Japanese 
business  of  the  colony. 

SAVINGS  BANKS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  savings  banks  operating  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies: 

Algemeene  Spaar-  en  Depositobank,  Batavia,  Java. 

Bataviasehe  Spaarbank,  Batavia,  Java. 

Oost  Indische  Production  Bank,  Batavia,  Java. 

Onderlinge  Spaar-  en  Depositobank,  Weltevreden,  Java. 

Spaarbank  te  Bandoeng,  Bandoeng,  Java. 

Nederlandsche  Spaarkas  te  Amsterdam,  Bandoeng,  Java. 

De  Eerste  Nederlandsch-Indiscke  Spaarkas,  Bandoeng,  Java. 

N.  I.  Bank  voor  gewestelijke  en  gemente  Credieten,  Soerabaya,  Java. 

Oost  Java  Bank,  Soerabaya,  Java. 

Industrieele  Bank  en  Handel  Maatschappij  te  ’sGravenhage,  Soerabaya,  Java. 

Soerabayasche  Incasso,  Spaar-  en  Hulpbank,  Soerabaya,  Java. 

Spaarbank  van  de  Mij.  tot  Nut  van  liet  Algemeen,  Soerabaya,  Java. 

Spaarbank  te  Semarang,  Semarang,  Java. 

Padangsche  Spaarbank,  Padang,  Sumatra. 

Spaarbank  van  Makassar,  Macassar,  Celebes. 

BANKS  IN  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  Hongkong  &  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation  and  the  Char¬ 
tered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  and  China  are  the  two  leading 
British  banks  of  British  Malaya.  These  banks  have  branches  at 
Penang,  Kuala  Lumpur,  and  Ipoh,  and  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  China,  and  British  India. 

The  Mercantile  Bank  of  India  (Ltd.)  has  a  branch  at  Singapore 
and  another  at  Khota  Bharu,  in  Kelantan,  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  some  representation  in  China,  but  its  princi¬ 
pal  activity  is  in  British  India. 

The  Dutch  banking  organization  is  represented  by  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Trading  Society  (Nederlandsch  Handels  Maatschappij),  the 
Netherlands  India  Commercial  Bank  (Nederlandsch-Indische  Han- 
delsbank),  and  the  Bank  voor  Indie. 

The  Japanese  banking  organization  is  represented  by  the  Bank 
of  Taiwan,  the  Yokohama  Specie  Bank,  and  the  China  and  Southern 
Bank. 

The  Bank  of  Communications  of  Peking,  China,  has  a  branch  in 
Singapore,  but  the  Chinese  banks  of  importance  in  the  local  com- 


358  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

munity  are  organized  under  the  laws  of  the  Straits  Settlements  and 
are  financed  by  local  Chinese.  The  principal  ones  are  the  Ho  Hong 
Bank  (Ltd.)  and  the  Chinese  Commercial  Bank  (Ltd.). 

The  United  States  is  represented  by  the  International  Banking 
Corporation  and  the  Asia  Banking  Corporation,  each  of  which  has  a 
branch  at  Singapore. 

PRACTICES  IN  HANDLING  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE. 

FINANCING  OF  EXPORTS. 

Exports  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  financed  to  a  large 
extent  through  bankers’  sight  or  time  credits  in  favor  of  the  seller 
in  Java.  These  credits  are  usually  opened  by  foreign  banks  and 
advised  to  the  beneficiary  through  a  local  bank,  which  negotiates 
the  drafts  drawn  against  them  on  the  surrender  of  a  full  set  of 
shipping  documents.  In  the  ordinary  procedure  the  seller  requests 
the  buyer  in  the  United  States  or  in  England  to  open  by  a  New  York 
or  London  bank  (the  issuing  bank)  through  some  local  bank  in 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies  (the  advising  bank)  a  confirmed  irrev¬ 
ocable  credit,  against  which  bills  are  placed  in  the  local  market 
and  are  bought  by  the  highest  bidders,  usually  local  banking  insti¬ 
tutions  and  branches  of  foreign  banks. 

The  cost  of  opening  such  a  credit  is  generally  one-eighth  of  1  per 
cent  per  mensem,  calculated  on  the  usance  of  the  bill,  and  as  bills 
drawn  on  first-class  foreign  banks  under  commercial  letters  of  credit 
are  more  readily  discounted  than  commercial  paper,  the  eastern 
banks  usually  quote  very  attractive  rates  of  exchange  for  such  bills. 
These  bills  are  generally  drawn  at  three  months’  sight  in  the  cur¬ 
rency  of  the  importing  country.  As  stated  above,  they  are  offered  in 
the  local  market,  and  generally  will  be  negotiated  by  any  bank, 
not  necessarily  the  advising  bank,  at  the  day’s  rate  of  exchange  for 
sight  bills,  three  months’  sight  bills,  or  as  the  case  may  be.  In  order 
to  take  advantage  of  the  open  discount  markets  of  New  York  and 
London  many  shipments  to  other  parts  of  the  wyorld  are  financed  by 
means  of  drafts  drawn  on  these  points  in  sterling  or  dollars. 

To  illustrate,  the  cost  of  a  credit  opened  by  a  merchant  in  New 
York,  bills  to  be  drawn  at  three  months’  sight  against  shipments 
from  Java,  would  work  out  like  this:  Commission  to  be  paid  by  the 
importer  to  the  issuing  bank  (three  months  at  f  per  cent),  0.375  per 
cent.  Assuming  the  discount  rate  for  three  months  bankers’  ac¬ 
ceptances  in  New  York  to  be  4  per  cent  per  annum,  the  total  cost 
of  finance  for  the  three  months’  usance  would  be  If  per  cent.  And, 
so  far  as  the  usance  of  the  bill  is  concerned,  it  is  the  discount  rate, 
4  per  cent  per  annum,  that  would  be  taken  into  account  by  the 
banker  buying  the  draft  when  figuring  the  rate  of  exchange.  On 
the  whole,  the  method  of  financing  under  first-class  bankers’  credits 
is  probably  the  most  economical. 

Sterling  drafts  are  preferred  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  on 
account  of  the  favorable  exchange  rate,  as  the  greater  volume  of 
sterling  exchange  business  makes  a  more  competitive  market  and 
hence  a  closer  rate.  Exporters’  bills  on  India  are  drawn  generally 
on  the  basis  of  credits  opened  through  London.  While  the  common 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


359 


usance  of  bills  is  90  days,  some  bills  on  Europe  and  the  United 
States  are  drawn  at  30,  60,  and  even  120  days.  Practically  all  bills 
are  sold  through  brokers,  who  are  paid  a  commission  of  one-half 
of  1  mill  by  the  sellers.  The  greater  part  of  the  bills  are  negotiated 
in  Batavia,  as  most  of  the  head  offices  of  the  business  organizations 
of  the  colony  are  located  there,  but  there  are  large  transactions  at 
Soerabaya  and  Semarang  in  connection  with  sugar  shipments,  and 
also  at  Macassar,  Medan,  and  Padang. 

EXCHANGE  QUOTATIONS. 

The  daily  silver  prices  and  foreign  exchange  rates  for  drafts  and 
cable  transfers  from  New  York,  London,  Amsterdam,  and  Paris 
are  quoted  locally,  but  not  the  discount  rates,  although  the  banks  are 
advised  of  changes  in  the  New  York  and  London  discount  markets. 
Dollar  bills  offered  to  the  local  banks  are  converted,  when  necessary, 
into  local  currency  at  the  buying  rate  of  the  day,  which  is  fixed  by 
the  competition  for  the  business.  The  competition  is  based  on  the 
rates  between  Batavia  and  Amsterdam,  Amsterdam  and  London, 
and  London  and  New  York.  Exchange  rates  are  not  published  and 
“  forward  ”  rates  of  discount  from  New  York  are  not  quoted  locally. 
The  margin  between  buying  and  selling  is  variable  according  to  com¬ 
petition  for  the  bills. 

In  a  highly  competitive  market  the  banks  may  buy  at  a  rate 
which  on  its  face  would  appear  to  involve  a  loss,  and  when  the 
demand  is  sluggish  the  margin  of  profit  may  be  very  wide.  Before 
the  war  the  range  was  within  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  but  owing  to 
rapid  fluctuations  of  exchange  during  the  war  and  to  the  slow 
handling  of  cables  the  banks  put  on  a  margin  to  cover  these  con¬ 
tingencies. 

FINANCING  OF  IMPORTS. 

Practically  all  of  the  import  business  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  is  financed  by  means  of  bills  drawn  in  the  currency  of  the 
exporting  country.  Each  bill  usually  bears  an  exchange  and  interest 
clause  similar  in  practically  all  essentials  to  the  u  British  colonial 
clause,”  which  reads :  “  Payable  with  collection  charges  and  ex¬ 
change,  British  and  colonial  stamps  added,  at  the  current  rate  in 
London  for  negotiating  bills  on  the  colonies ;  ”  or  for  drafts  on  non- 
British  colonies  the  following  stamp  is  sometimes  found :  “  With 
exchange  and  collection  charges  inclusive,  interest  at  6  per  cent  per 
annum  from  date  hereof  to  approximate  date  of  arrival  of  remit¬ 
tance  in - .” 

The  following  clause  is  recommended  by  American  bankers  for 
drafts  drawn  on  the  Netherlands  East  Indies :  “  Payable  at  the 

- 1  Bank’s  selling  rate  for  drafts  (or  by  approved  banker’s 

check)  on - ,2  plus  interest  at  the  rate  of - 3  per  cent  per 

annum  from  date  hereof  until  approximate  date  of  the  return  remit¬ 
tance  in - .2  ” 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  this  method  the  exporter  is  relieved  from 
any  dealings  in  exchange.  The  American  exporter  quotes  his  price 


1  Insert  the  name  of  the  collecting  hank  in  Java. 

*  Insert  name  of  town  where  bill  is  negotiated. 

•  The  rate  of  interest  ruling  at  present  is  6  per  cent  per  annum. 


360  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


in  United  States  currency,  f.  o.  b.  seaport  or  point  of  shipment,  or, 
preferably,  c.  i.  f.  port  of  destination,  draws  for  the  cost  in  Ameri¬ 
can  dollars,  and  if  he  sells  his  draft  stamped  with  the  foregoing 
clause  to  one  of  the  banks  specializing  in  foreign  trade  he  gets  a 
check  for  the  face  value  without  deductions  of  any  charges. 

In  a  case  where  the  bill  does  not  bear  the  interest  portion  of  the 
above  clause  the  exporter  will  make  the  proper  calculation  in  his 
selling  price.  If  he  draws  at  30  days’  sight  he  will  figure  that  he 
will  be  out  his  money  about  120  days,  taking  90  days  for  transit  to 
and  from  Batavia  and  the  usance  of  the  bill,  and  if  he  considers  the 
money  worth  about  6  per  cent  per  annum  he  will  add  2  per  cent  to 
his  selling  price.  Sometimes  the  exchange  clause  reads :  “  Payable 

at  the - Bank’s  selling  rate  for  telegraphic  transfers,”  in  which 

instance  interest  is  calculated  from  the  date  of  the  drafts  until  the 
date  upon  which  payment  thereof  is  effected  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies,  plus  perhaps  three  to  five  days  to  offset  possible  cable  delays. 

Documentary  drafts  can  be  drawn  on  points  throughout  the  Far 
East  on  what  is  known  as  a  D/P  basis,  which  term  means  the  at¬ 
tached  documents  are  to  be  delivered  against  payment.  When  a 
merchant  in  the  Far  East  asks  for  30,  60,  or  90  day  terms  it  is 
usually  assumed  that  he  means  30,  60,  or  90  days  D/P. 

AD/P  draft  can  be  handled  as  follows:  The  shipper  gives  in¬ 
structions  to  his  collecting  bank,  which  they  in  turn  pass  on  to  their 
branch  or  correspondent  in  the  Far  East,  stipulating  that  the  draft 
is  to  be  presented  to  the  consignee  for  acceptance,  but  the  documents 
controlling  the  merchandise  are  to  be  withheld  until  \the  payment 
is  made.  The  shipper  should  instruct  that  the  merchandise  be  placed 
in  the  bank’s  u  godown  ”  or  warehouse,  and  if  the  shipper  has  not 
arranged  insurance  himself  the  bank  should  also  be  instructed  to 
cover  the  goods  with  insurance  for  the  usual  risks  while  in  ware¬ 
house.  The  relative  draft  would  be  held  in  the  collecting  bank’s 
portfolio  until  maturity,  at  which  time  it  must  be  paid,  and  the  docu¬ 
ments  are  then  released  to  the  drawee.  The  collecting  bank  can  also 
be  instructed  to  accept  partial  payment  of  the  draft  against  delivery 
of  a  portion  of  the  merchandise.  It  can  be  clearly  seen  that  the  fore¬ 
going  terms  serve  to  minimize  the  credit  risk,  as  no  merchandise  is 
released  from  the  control  of  the  collecting  bank  until  payment  has 
been  received. 

The  other  manner  in  which  a  documentary  draft  can  be  drawn  is 
termed  a  D/A  basis,  i.  e.,  documents  are  to  be  delivered  to  the  drawee 
upon  his  acceptance  of  the  draft.  It  is  obvious  that  this  manner  of 
drawing  involves  a  direct  credit  risk,  as  the  drawer  of  the  draft  has 
no  security  for  its  payment,  and  in  case  of  nonpayment  at  maturity 
would  have  to  proceed  in  a  legal  manner  against  the  drawee  on  the 
strength  of  the  accepted  draft  which  he  or  the  collecting  bank  would 
be  holding. 

The  manner  in  which  documents  are  to  be  delivered  to  the  drawee 
of  the  draft  and,  in  general,  the  terms  of  sale  with  regard  to  pay¬ 
ment  are  matters  which  must  be  carefully  considered  by  the  American 
exporter  before  accepting  orders  from  foreign  merchants. 

Many  import  bills  drawn  on  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  nego¬ 
tiated  by  bankers  in  America  on  the  strength  of  letters  of  credit  or 
authorities  to  purchase.  Distinction  must  be  made  between  irrev- 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


361 


ocable  credits,  which  may  or  may  not  be  “  confirmed  ”  by  the  advis¬ 
ing  bank  in  the  United  States,  revocable  credits,  and  mere  “  authori¬ 
ties  to  draw  ”  or  “  authorities  to  purchase,”  which  in  reality  are  not 
letters  of  credit  at  all.  (See  Federal  Reserve  Bulletin,  August, 
1921.) 

The  most  satisfactory,  of  course,  is  the  irrevocable  letter  of  credit. 
Neither  the  buyer  nor  the  issuing  bank  can  revoke  it  until  its  time 
limit  has  expired,  when  it  lapses  automatically.  In  this  case  the 
buyer  arranges  with  the  local  “  issuing  ”  bank  to  open  a  credit  with 
the  “  advising  ”  bank  in  America,  which  notifies  or  advises  the  seller 
that  it  has  certain  funds  for  him  which  will  be  turned  over  to  him 
on  fulfillment  of  the  instructions  in  the  letter  of  credit.  This  con¬ 
firmation  makes  it  a  “  confirmed  irrevocable  ”  letter  of  credit.  Revo¬ 
cable  letters  of  credit  may  be  canceled  at  any  time  by  the  issuing 
bank ;  irrevocable  letters  of  credit  can  not  be  canceled  or  in  any  way 
changed  after  the  beneficiary  has  been  notified,  except  with  his 
consent. 

Drafts  drawn  under  “  authorities  to  purchase,”  when  not  otherwise 
provided,  are  with  recourse  to  the  drawer.  Although  the  advising 
or  issuing  bank  may  have  paid  his  draft,  the  drawer  is  not  released 
from  the  obligations  attaching  to  a  drawer  of  a  bill  of  exchange 
until  the  draft  is  finally  paid  by  the  purchaser. 

When  drafts  are  drawn  under  revocable,  irrevocable,  and  con¬ 
firmed  and  irrevocable  credits  the  drawer  is  responsible  for  the 
amount  involved  until  the  draft  is  paid  by  the  bank  issuing  the 
credit. 

When  drafts  are  sold  “  without  recourse  ”  to  the  seller  the  trans¬ 
action  is  closed,  so  far  as  the  seller  is  concerned,  when  he  receives 
his  money.  They  may  be  either  D/A  or  D/P  bills. 

“Authority  to  draw  ”  or  “  authority  to  purchase  ”  is  nothing  more 
or  less  than  a  notification  by  one  bank  to  another  that  a  merchant 
of  standing  has  entered  into  a  bona  fide  contract  with  another  mer¬ 
chant  for  the  purchase  of  goods  and  that  it  is  proper  to  honor  drafts 
drawn  by  the  seller  on  the,  buyer  with  due  recourse  in  case  the  draft 
should  not  be  honored.  This  practice  has  been  rather  prevalent  in 
the  Pacific  trade,  and  business  on  this  basis  has  been  done  between 
San  Francisco  and  New  York  and  the  Far  East.  While  the  banks 
exercise  due  caution,  shipments  sent  on  this  basis  are  practically 
credit  transactions. 

In  recent  years  exporters  to  the  Orient  have  been  able  to  dictate 
their  own  terms  and  have  generally  insisted  on  confirmed  irrevo¬ 
cable  credit,  while  buyers  in  the  Orient  naturally  hold  out  for  ship¬ 
ments  on  basis  of  authorities  to  purchase  D/P  or  D/A  drafts,  and  a 
reasonable  credit  extended  on  this  basis  will  be  a  potent  factor  in 
the  securing  and  holding  of  trade  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
provided  due  safeguards  are  employed,  such  as  a  careful  investiga¬ 
tion  of  proposed  credit  risks. 

COMMISSIONS  ON  BILLS. 

In  the  import  trade  there  is  no  fixed  custom  in  regard  to  collec¬ 
tion  charged  for  clean  and  documentary  items.  Some  banks  make 
no  commission  charge  where  exchange  is  involved  and  the  paper  is 
in  the  currency  of  the  exporting  country,  because  they  make  their 


362  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


profits  on  the  exchange  transaction,  while  others  make  a  collection 
charge  up  to  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  depending  upon  various  circum¬ 
stances.  The  commission  charged  by  “  outport  ”  banks  for  obtain¬ 
ing  acceptance  or  for  making  collection  of  bills  on  “  outport  ”  com¬ 
panies  is  usually  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent.  As  a  rule,  all  collection 
charges  are  paid  by  the  importer  when  the  bills  are  in  the  currency 
of  the  exporting  country  and  by  the  exporter  when  the  bills  are 
drawn  in  local  currency.  The  latter  is  very  infrequent  in  practice. 
The  bill  stamp  charges  are  negligible. 

PROTESTED  ITEMS. 

Official  protests  must  be  effected  within  24  hours  after  maturity 
and  the  charges  are  16  florins.  If  the  draft  is  paid  after  protest 
the  drawee  usually  pays  the  protest  charges.  Local  banks  do  not 
guarantee  the  payment  of  drafts  accepted  by  approved  firms,  except, 
of  course,  when  credit  has  been  opened  “  without  recourse.”  When 
shipment  is  made  “  documents  against  payment  ”  the  banks  will 
undertake  responsibility  for  the  goods  until  the  drafts  are  paid; 
when  made  “  documents  against  acceptance  ”  no  responsibility  is 
assumed  by  the  banks  after  acceptance  has  been  obtained. 

While  the  banks  are  responsible  for  the  merchandise  they  make 
all  necessary  arrangements  for  insurance  and  storage,  which  is 
charged  against  the  draft.  The  storage  companies  (“  veems”)  are 
all  operating  under  a  Government  license.  Storage  charges  are 
placed  against  the  merchandise  and  must  be  paid  before  delivery. 

SHIPPING  DOCUMENTS. 

If  goods  arrive  in  advance  of  documents  covering  them,  delivery 
may  be  obtained  under  guaranty  from  a  bank  to  the  steamship 
company.  The  bank  makes  no  charge  for  this  service.  No  consular 
invoice  is  required.  The  banks  do  not  permit  the  examination  of 
the  goods  before  payment,  as  otherwise  they  lose  recourse  to  the 
drawer.  If  bills  of  lading  are  made  out  “to  order”  the  consignee 
may  get  possession  of  the  goods  without  a  bill  of  lading  under  a 
bank  guaranty.  To  give  the  shipper  absolute  control  of  the  mer¬ 
chandise,  bills  of  lading  may  be  indorsed  to  a  bank,  but  the  banks 
prefer  them  to  be  made  “to  order”  and  indorsed  in  blank.  “Re¬ 
ceived  for  shipment  ”  bills  of  lading  only  are  accepted  by  American 
and  Netherlands  East  Indies  banks  in  support  of  credits  covering 
Netherlands  Indies  and  United  States  transactions,  except  when 
otherwise  stipulated  by  the  principals  in  the  transactions. 

SALE  OF  GOODS  BY  BANKS  AND  RESHIPMENTS. 

When  the  drafts  are  dishonored,  the  foreign  bank’s  clients,  i.  e., 
the  drawers,  may  desire  to  sell  the  goods,  in  which  case  the  bank 
instructs  a  responsible  firm  to  attend  to  such  sale  for  the  account  of 
the  drawer,  or  the  goods  may  be  put  up  at  auction.  If  the  shipper 
desires  a  return  of  the  goods  he  must  so  instruct  the  bank.  No  duty 
need  be  paid  in  such  a  case,  but  it  is  practically  impossible  to  obtain 
the  refund  of  customs  duties  once  paid. 

COLLECTION  AND  INTEREST  CHARGES. 

When  drafts  are  drawn  in  the  currency  of  the  exporting  country 
the  remittance  will  be  for  the  full  face  value,  unless  a  collection 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


363 


charge  that  is  not  paid  by  the  drawee  has  been  made  by  the  collecting 
bank.  When  the  remitting  bank  desires  to  obtain  collection  charges 
for  itself  it  should  so  state  on  the  draft,  and  this  should  also  be 
stated  in  the  letter  of  transmittal.  If  interest  is  to  be  included,  the 
draft  should  contain  the  phrase  “  with  interest  from  date  hereof 

until  approximate  date  of  repayment  in - .”  Local  banks  will 

undertake  to  remit  proceeds  of  bills  in  United  States  currency  with¬ 
out  loss  of  exchange;  the  phrase  which  should  appear  on  bills  in 
such  a  case  is  “  Payable  at  collecting  bank’s  selling  rate  for  checks 
on  New  York.”  (See  Federal  Reserve  Bulletin,  May,  1922.) 

There  is  no  fixed  rate  of  rebate  for  retiring  drafts  before  ma¬ 
turity,  this  being  a  matter  of  negotiation  between  the  local  bank  and 
the  acceptor.  Very  few  drafts  are  drawn  without  the  interest  clause 
attached. 

The  only  charge  for  the  return  of  dishonored  items,  other  than 
the  protest  fee  of  16  florins,  is  a  bank  commission  amounting  to 
one- fourth  of  1  per  cent.  Payment  of  such  charges  is  made  through 
the  American  correspondent  of  the  local  bank. 

COMMERCIAL  ORGANIZATIONS. 

The  chambers  of  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  are 
quasi  governmental  organizations,  the  members  being  appointees  of 
the  Governor  General.  They  do  not  touch  the  business  life  of  the 
colony  closely. 

The  Handelsvereeniging  (merchants’  association)  is  an  organiza¬ 
tion  of  merchants  for  mutual  protection  and  cooperative  action  in 
all  matters  of  common  interest.  It  is  not  under  the  direct  influence 
of  the  Government  as  is  a  chamber  of  commerce. 

The  Handelsvereeniging  te  Soerabaya  is  probably  the  most  highly 
developed  and  energetic  of  these  societies.  It  publishes  a  weekly 
market  report  covering  export  commodities,  weekly  news  sheet, 
monthly  price  current  covering  import  commodities,  monthly  trade 
returns  of  the  port  in  great  detail,  and  an  annual  review  and  report. 
These  publications  are  valuable  aids  in  studying  the  trade  of  east 
Java. 

Similar  associations  are  organized  at  Batavia,  Semarang,  Medan, 
Padang,  Macassar,  and  Menado. 

The  following  commercial  organizations  are  established  in  British 
Malaya : 

Singapore. — Singapore  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Exchange, 
Singapore  Chamber  of  Commerce  Rubber  Association,  and  Singa¬ 
pore  Chinese  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Penang. — Penang  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Penang  Chinese 
Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Federated  Malay  States. — The  Federated  Malay  States  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Commerce,  divided  into  the  Perak  branch,  the  Selangor 
branch,  and  the  Negri  Sembilan  branch.  There  are  also  the  Selan¬ 
gor  Chinese  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  Perak  Chinese  Chamber 
of  Commerce. 

British  North  Borneo. — The  North  Borneo  Chamber  of  Commerce 
and  North  Borneo  Chinese  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Sarawak. — Chinese  Chamber  of  Commerce. 


364  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  brokers  of  the  Straits  Settlements  and  Federated  Malay 
States  cities  operate  usually  under  the  authorization  and  rules  di¬ 
rectly  or  indirectly  laid  down  by  the  various  chambers  of  commerce. 
There  are  brokerage  firms  that  stand  very  high  in  the  business  com¬ 
munity,  while  there  are  many  firms  and  individuals  of  no  financial 
responsibility.  There  are  some  so-called  brokers  acting  independ¬ 
ently  of  the  chambers  of  commerce  rules. 

MONETARY  EXCHANGE. 

The  following  table  gives  the  monthly  average  rates  of  exchange 
in  New  York  for  the  British  pound  sterling  (par  value  $4.8665)  and 
the  Straits  Settlements  dollar  (par  value  $0.5678),  taken  from  the 
Federal  Reserve  Bulletin: 


Months. 

New 

York- 

London. 

New 

York- 

Singa- 

pore. 

Months. 

New 

York- 

London. 

New 

York- 

Singa- 

pore. 

1919 

January . 

$4.  7658 

$0. 5644 
.5638 

1921 

Januarv . 

$3. 7419 

$0. 4367 

February . 

4. 7648 

February . 

3. 8758 

.4506 

March.  .1 . 

4.  7147 

.5625 

March. . . 

3. 911 

.4549 

April . . 

4. 6617 

.5625 

April . 

3.9292 

.4619 

May . 

4. 6676 

.5625 

May . 

3.9753 

.4650 

June . 

4. 6211 

.5593 

June . 

3. 7815 

.4496 

July . 

4.  4287 

.5350 

July . 

3. 6321 

.4142 

August . 

4. 272 

.5290 

August . 

3.6536 

.4108 

September . 

4. 179 

.505 

.5047 

September . 

3.724 

.42 

October . 

4. 184 

October . 

3.  8728 

.4250 

November . 

4. 0982 

.5050 

November . 

3. 9701 

.4492 

December . 

3.  8123 

.5036 

December . 

4.1561 

.4542 

1920 

anuary . 

3. 6779 

.5015 

1922 

January . 

4.2247 

.47 

February . 

3. 381 

.4659 

February . 

4. 3620 

.4783 

March..'. . 

3. 7258 

.4419 

March . 

4. 3757 

.4953 

April . . 

3.  931 

.4834 

April . 

4.  4133 

.4999 

May . 

3.  8477 

.4642 

May . 

4.4461 

.5076 

June . 

3. 9497 

.4726 

June . 

4.  4519 

.5114 

July . 

3.  8647 

.4751 

July . 

4.4464 

.5072 

August . 

3. 6219 

.4647 

August . 

4. 4647 

.5140 

September . 

3. 5103 

.4357 

September . 

4.4307 

.5164 

October . 

November . 

December . 

3. 4751 

3. 4372 
3. 4923 

.4385 

.4228 

.41 

INSURANCE. 

FIRE  INSURANCE. 

A  large  business  is  done  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in  fire  in¬ 
surance  that  is  satisfactory  in  every  respect  and  for  which  there  is 
keen  competition  by  companies  that  understand  the  risks  and  differ¬ 
entiate  between  safe  and  unsafe  business. 

Insurance  against  fire  loss  in  this  colony  requires  a  knowledge  of 
the  moral  credits  of  the  colony  and  something  of  the  financial  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  insured.  The  “  moral  hazard  ”  is  a  factor  that  has  to  be 
as  carefully  watched  in  this  colony  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  world, 
and  American  fire  insurance  companies  will  find  it  advisable  to  pro¬ 
ceed  very  carefully  in  entering  the  field. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


365 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 

The  time  limit  set  for  filing  claims  against  steamship  companies 
for  damage  to  cargo  is  so  short  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  file  claims 
for  damages  in  ordinary  cases.  The  ports  of  the  colony  are  often 
congested  with  undelivered  cargo  and  at  times  it  is  weeks  after  cargo 
is  discharged  before  it  can  be  identified  and  delivery  taken.  Most 
of  the  steamship  companies  operating  between  the  United  States  and 
Java  ports  make  the  collection  of  claims  very  difficult,  if  not  impos¬ 
sible,  and  the  pilferage  and  breakage  of  cargo  through  careless  or 
intentionally  rough  handling  is  characteristic  of  the  ports.  American 
insurance  companies  can  not  insure  against  pilferage  under  ordinary 
rates. 

Insurance  against  breakage  involves  greater  risks  on  shipments  to 
Java  and  Sumatra  ports  than  to  other  ports  in  the  Orient,  and  the 
question  of  packing,  especially  of  machinery,  is  one  of  prime  impor¬ 
tance  to  the  insurance  companies.  Some  American  machinery  manu¬ 
facturers  are  so  careful  in  packing  that  the  risk  of  breakage  or  of 
damage  from  rust  may  be  placed  at  an  absolute  minimum,  while  other 
manufacturers  are  very  careless,  apparently  depending  on  their  in¬ 
surance  rather  than  the  packing  to  protect  them  from  financial  loss. 

Insurance  against  fresh-water  damage  becomes  extraordinary  risk 
in  this  colony.  The  steamers  are  not  supposed  to  unload  in  the  rain, 
but  with  their  system  of  avoidance  of  claims  for  damages  to  cargo 
they  are  not  always  careful  in  this  respect.  After  the  cargo  is  dis¬ 
charged  it  is  sometimes  stowed  in  the  open,  where  it  may  lie  for 
weeks  before  delivery  can  be  taken,  if  it  is  machinery.  In  case  of 
foodstuffs,  especially  confectionery,  the  slightest  dampness  will  cause 
damage.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  place  the  responsibility  on  any 
one,  other  than  the  insurance  company,  when  a  consignment  shows 
evidence  of  fresh-water  damage. 

All  the  principal  marine  insurance  companies  are  represented  in 
Singapore  and  Penang.  Fire  and  automobile  insurance  is  usually 
taken  out  in  British  companies,  some  of  which  have  their  own 
branches  in  Singapore. 

A  Canadian  life  insurance  company  is  very  active  throughout  this 
territory  and  does  a  large  part  of  the  most  desirable  business.  Two 
Shanghai  companies  and  one  Singapore  company  are  also  active 
competitors  for  the  business  offering. 

FORWARDING  COMPANIES. 

Until  quite  recently  the  organizations  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  known  as  veems  have  chiefly  operated  as  forwarding  agents 
for  the  agricultural  products  of  the  colony.  They  have  stations  on 
the  railway  lines  at  various  producing  centers,  where  they  receive 
the  products  from  the  estates  for  forwarding  to  their  establishments 
at  the  ports  which  attend  to  details  of  shipping. 

They  issue  official  weight  certificates  and  warehouse  receipts,  or 
warrants  to  bearer,  which  are  accepted  by  the  banks  as  negotiable 
commercial  paper,  and  act  as  custodians  of  produce  on  which  money 
has  been  advanced.  Lately  one  of  the  veems  has  undertaken  to  issue 
certificates  of  quality  for  produce  shipped  or  handled  by  them. 


366  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


The  veems  have  been  called  upon,  from  time  to  time,  to  render 
services  in  connection  with  imports,  the  handling  of  unclaimed  in¬ 
coming  cargo,  usually  for  the  account  of  the  banks,  and  the  forward¬ 
ing  of  goods  destined  for  inland  points  for  the  account  of  the  con¬ 
signees. 

The  development  of  the  veem  is  in  some  respects  antagonistic  to 
the  interests  of  the  established  export  houses.  For  instance,  the  issu¬ 
ing  of  certificates  of  quality  in  connection  with  attending  to  the  de¬ 
tails  of  shipping  would  make  it  impossible,  theoretically,  to  buy 
through  a  broker  for  delivery  to  the  veem  which  would  inspect  and 
issue  a  certificate  of  quality,  attend  to  preparation  for  shipment, 
such  as  bagging  or  casing,  and  turn  over  the  shipping  papers  to  the 
bank  for  payment.  Such  an  arrangement  as  this  could  only  be 
effected  through  a  veem  that  had  a  well-established  reputation  with 
its  clients. 

One  veem  in  Soerabaya  has  a  laboratory  in  which  it  makes  exact 
moisture  tests  of  all  copra  put  into  its  warehouses  in  order  to  avoid 
disputes  as  to  loss  of  weight.  This  equipment  is  sufficient  to  make 
exhaustive  tests  of  produce  passing  through  its  hands.  When  asked 
about  this  phase  of  the  business  of  the  veems,  an  exporter  attacked 
it  so  vigorously  as  to  leave  the  impression  that  he  had  something  to 
fear  in  its  development. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  better  class  of  veems  can  be  made 
very  useful  to  American  trade,  but  American  importers  should  not 
conclude  from  this  that  they  can  safely  dispense  with  the  services  of 
the  exporter  at  this  time.  The  requirements  of  the  brokers’  societies 
are  not  sufficiently  strict  to  make  it  safe  to  employ  brokers  without  a 
very  careful  investigation  of  their  local  standing,  and  the  organiza¬ 
tions  of  the  veems  have  been  so  heavily  taxed  within  the  past  few 
years  that  many  of  them  are  weakened  by  too  rapid  growth. 

It  is  possible  that  American  exporters  may  wish  to  carry  stocks  in 
warehouse  in  this  colony  from  which  their  customers  may  draw.  In 
this  case  the  veems  may  be  useful.  An  American  exporter  could  ar¬ 
range  with  his  bank  to  have  stock  stored  with  the  veem  and  make 
his  drafts  in  such  a  way  that  portions  of  the  stock  could  be  paid  for 
and  withdrawn  by  the  customer  as  required. 

There  are  no  public  warehouses  in  the  Straits  Settlements  or  Fed¬ 
erated  Malay  States  ports,  except  those  of  the  harbor  companies,  the 
rates  for  which  are  prohibitive  for  long-time  storage.  Private  com¬ 
panies  have  ample  warehousing  accommodations  for  normal  needs. 

BROKERS  AND  BROKERAGES. 

The  brokers’  organizations  are  no  more  carefully  controlled  than  in 
other  markets,  and  there  are  many  irresponsible  men  in  the  business, 
as  well  as  some  very  reliable  houses  with  ample  financial  resources. 
In  Batavia,  Soerabaya,  and  Semarang  a  large  part  of  the  produce 
business  is  handled  through  brokers,  but  in  Macassar,  Medan,  and 
Padang  the  brokers  have  little  or  no  part  in  commerical  transactions. 

The  following  table  shows  the  accepted  schedule  of  brokerage 
charges  in  force  in  June,  1920,  and  indicates  the  range  of  the  brokers’ 
activities : 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


367 


Commodities. 


Buyer. 


Seller. 


Groundnuts  . 

Arrack . 

Marine  insurance - 

Fire  insurance . . 

Loans . 

Negotiations  of  mort¬ 
gages. 

Betel  nuts . . 

Locally  made  ferti¬ 
lizers. 

Cassia  fistula . 

Cocoa . . 

Citron  ella  oil . 

Copra,  Java  and  Bali 
(f.  o.  b.,  n.o.  g.). 
Copra,  Java  and  Bali 
(first  cost). 

Copra,  Moluccas  (f.  o. 
b.,  n.  o.  g.,  and  first 
cost). 

Coca . 

Sundry  oil-containing 
products. 

Castor  beans . 

Stocks  and  bonds _ 

Essential  oils . 

Mace . 

Gum  damar . 

Copal . 

Sugar . 


£  per  cent . . . 
1  per  cent.. . 
10  per  cent 1 . 
25  per  cent 1 . 
4  per  cent 2 . . 
£  per  cent 2 . . 

_ do . 

_ do . 

_ do . 

_ do . 

1  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 

£  per  cent . . . 


1  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 

_ do . 

_ do . 

1  per  cent . . . 

_ do . 

£  per  cent . . . 

- do . 

2c.  per  picul. 


£  per  cent. 
1  per  cent. 


£  per  cent. 

Do. 

Do. 


Do. 

Do. 

1  per  cent. 
£  per  cent. 

£  per  cent. 

Do. 


1  per  cent. 
£  per  cent. 


Do. 

Do. 

1  per  cent. 
Do. 

£  per  cent. 
Do. 

2c.  per  picul. 


Commodities. 

Buyer. 

Hides . 

£  per  cent. .. 
. do . 

Cinnamon . 

Coffee . 

lOc.per  picul 
£  per  cent. .. 
2£c.per  picul 
£  per  cent . . . 
. do . 

Kapok . 

Kapok  seeds . 

Coconut  oil . 

Quinine  bark . 

Cloves . 

1  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 
2c.  per  picul. 
£  per  cent . . . 
lOc.per  picul. 
£  per  cent . . . 
J  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 
2c.  per  picul. 
£  per  cent . . . 
. do . 

Indian  corn . 

Molasses  sugar . 

Nutmegs . 

Pepper^ . 

Petroleum . 

Rice . 

Rattan . 

Rubber . 

Sugar . 

Coal  and  coke . 

Sesame  seed . 

Spirits . 

1  per  cent ... 
£  per  cent. .. 
. do . 

Tea . 

Tobacco . 

Tin . 

£  per  cent . . . 
£  per  cent . . . 

Tapioca . 

Telegraphic  transfer . . 

Liquid  molasses . 

Hard  molasses . 

lc.per  2  tins, 
lc.  per  picul . 
1  per  cent . . . 

Vanilla . 

Drafts . 

Sacks . 

£  per  cent. .. 

Seller. 


£  per  cent. 
Do. 

10c.  per  picul. 
£  per  cent. 
2£c.per  picul. 
£  per  cent. 
Do. 

1  per  cent. 

£  per  cent. 

2c.  per  picul. 
£  per  cent. 
lOc.per  picul. 
£  per  cent, 
i  per  cent. 

£  per  cent. 

|  per  cent. 
Do.  * 

£  per  cent. 
Do. 

1  per  cent. 

£  per  cent. 
Do. 

£  per  cent. 

£  per  cent. 

£  per  mille. 
lc.  per  2  tins, 
lc.per  picul. 
1  per  cent. 

£  per  mille. 

£  per  cent. 


1  Of  the  premium  to  be  paid  by  the  insurer. 

*  Of  the  loan’s  rent. 

*  One-fourth  per  cent  for  head  sugar  and  sirup  sugar;  one-half  per  cent  of  selling  price  for  sugar  in  bags; 
for  both  sorts,  maximum  of  2  cents  per  picul. 

EXPORTERS  AND  IMPORTERS. 


EXPORTERS  IN  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

There  are  a  few  firms  and  companies  in  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies  doing  an  exclusively  export  business,  but  a  large  part  of  the 
export  trade  is  handled  by  companies  that  also  do  an  import  busi¬ 
ness.  The  service  to  trade  provided  by  the  exporter  varies  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  article  exported.  A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this 
point. 

Pepper. — The  export  of  pepper  is  in  the  hands  of  a  very  few  con¬ 
cerns,  although  the  official  list  of  exporters  includes  56  names.  All 
but  a  few  of  these  56  firms  are  occasional  shippers  who  have  picked 
up  small  lots  and  made  shipments,  thereby  getting  into  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  lists.  They  have  contributed  very  little  to  the  efficiency 
of  collection  and  distribution,  other  than  providing  something  of  a 
balance  against  the  weight  of  the  few  big  concerns  whose  interests 
lie,  broadly,  in  one  direction.  The  principal  exporters  maintain 
branches  at  Telokbetong,  the  center  of  the  pepper-producing  district 
of  the  Lampongs,  and  handle  the  Muntok  (Banka)  crop  through 
agents  controlled  from  Batavia.  The  crop  of  Atjeh  (the  northern 
residency  of  Sumatra)  is  handled  through  agents  controlled  through 
Penang  and  Singapore.  These  agents  have  long-standing  relations 
with  the  chiefs  and  other  leaders  of  the  people,  through  whom  they 
make  advances  to  the  buying  organization  and  often,  through  them, 
to  the  growers  themselves.  Such  exporters  make  a  real  contribution 
to  trade  by  partly  financing  crops  and  controlling  the  collection,  and 
their  knowledge  of  the  personnel  of  the  trade  gives  them  a  hold  on 
it  that  would  be  difficult  to  break. 


368  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Hides. — The  principal  exporters  of  hides  have  contributed  some¬ 
thing  toward  the  betterment  of  grades  and  the  introduction  of  better 
methods  in  killing,  trimming,  and  drying,  but  they  do  not  reach  as 
far  into  the  trade  as  do  the  pepper  exporters.  The  collecting  is  done 
by  the  Chinese  and  Arab  traders  and  the  exporter  is  the  last  link  in 
the  chain  of  collection. 

Copra. — The  copra  trade  is  representative  of  that  of  many  other 
products.  The  exporter  receives  a  firm  offer  from  his  customer 
abroad  and  commissions  a  broker  to  buy  for  him  within  a  stated 
limit.  Some  of  the  brokers  have  connections  with  buyers  in  various 
parts  of  Java  or  in  the  other  islands,  and  they  buy  through  these 
agents  or  from  local  stocks  for  the  account  of  the  exporter.  Pur¬ 
chases  are  made  on  the  reputation  of  the  sellers  who  are  known  by 
name  or  otherwise,  on  guaranties  from  other  houses,  or  on  descrip¬ 
tion.  In  the  latter  case  there  must  be  an  inspection,  which  is  made 
with  reasonable  care.  Often  large  shipments  of  copra  are  made 
without  anyone  from  the  exporter’s  offices  seeing  the  cargo.  In  such 
cases  the  exporter  is  merely  a  go-between  with  correspondents  abroad 
who  recognize  his  guaranties  of  quality,  if  such  are  made,  and  local 
connections  with  brokers  who  are  the  real  controllers  of  the  lines 
of  collection. 

The  importer-exporter  has  a  different  relation  to  the  export  trade 
from  those  concerns  doing  an  exclusively  export  business.  These 
houses  are  importing  merchandise,  which  they  sell,  generally  on 
credit,  to  the  Chinese  trader  or  shopkeeper.  Each  of  these  Chinese 
is  also  a  money  lender  or  extends  credit  to  the  natives,  who  are 
always  willing  to  go  into  debt.  When  the  Chinese  gets  ready  to 
sell  he  generally  offers  his  produce  to  the  company  from  which  he 
buys,  and  because  he  is  generally  stretching  his  credit  with  the 
importer  to  the  limit  he  often  will  accept  a  lower  offer  than  he 
would  from  an  outsider. 

Another  type  of  exporter  is  the  big  culture  company  exporting 
the  product  of  its  plantations  and  buying  in  the  open  market  when 
ordered  to  do  so  by  the  Netherlands  office.  These  companies  con¬ 
sign  their  products  and  purchases  to  their  own  offices  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands  or  to  the  bankers  who  finance  their  current  needs. 

The  Netherlands  Trading  Society  (the  “  Factory”)  stands  alone 
as  the  exporter  of  the  products  of  the  Government  plantations,  as 
well  as  those  of  its  own  forty  or  fifty  plantations  and  industries, 
which  are  all  consigned  to  its  head  office  in  Amsterdam. 

IMPORTERS  IN  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 

The  importers’  organizations  cover  a  wide  field;  some  of  them 
have  branches  extending  to  Celebes,  Sumatra,  and  other  islands, 
besides  the  principal  Java  cities;  some  cover -more  intensively  nar¬ 
rower  fields,  such  as  east  Java  only,  west  Java  only,  Celebes  and 
the  eastern  islands  only,  or  the  northern  part  of  Sumatra  only, 
based  on  Medan;  while  one  big  concern  has  9  branches  in  Java 
and  31  branches  in  the  Outer  Possessions. 

Practically  all  the  units  of  this  magnificent  organization  have 
their  head  offices  in  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  or  The  Hague,  and 
while  there  is  keen  competition  between  them  they  are  united  in 
their  efforts  to  concentrate  their  buying  and  selling  in  the  Nether- 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


369 


lands.  The  colonial  offices  represent  the  fingers  at  the  end  of  the 
long  arm  of  the  Netherlands  business  body,  which  is  prepared 
*  through  its  banking,  shipping,  petroleum,  and  political  members 
to  put  up  the  strongest  kind  of  a  fight  for  its  position  as  middle¬ 
man  between  the  Netherlands  Indies  and  the  rest  of  the  world, 
including  the  United  States,  which  is  the  largest  ultimate  con¬ 
sumer  of  the  products  of  the  colony. 

The  importers  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  generally  do  not  spe¬ 
cialize  in  any  one  line,  although  some  of  them  give  more  attention 
to  cotton  piece  goods  and  related  lines,  while  others  focus  more 
attention  on  the  hardware  lines.  Notable  exceptions  to  this  general 
rule  are  the  machinery  importers  and  automobile  importers.  The 
general  importers  work  through  traveling  salesmen,  who  travel 
throughout  the  colony  as  trade  demands,  and  through  the  Chinese 
retailers,  who  deal  directly  with  them.  Their  lines  are  so  varied 
and  their  European  staffs  so  small  that  no  special  sales  effort  in 
any  one  line  can  be  expected.  Special  effort  can  be  had  only  by 
sending  men  into  their  field  to  cover  the  territory  with  the  im¬ 
porters’  travelers  or  local  salesmen.  In  placing  agencies  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  territory  covered  by  the  importer. 
Full  particulars  regarding  most  of  the  importers  are  on  file  in  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

THE  CHINESE  AS  MERCHANTS. 

The  position  of  the  Chinese  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  is 
in  some  respects  analogous  to  that  of  their  countrymen  in  British 
Malaya  and  in  the  different  parts  of  the  archipelago,  but  there  are 
many  striking  differences  that  make  the  possible  relation  of  the 
Chinese  merchants  of  this  colony  to  the  American  manufacturers 
and  exporters  somewhat  different.  Since  the  distribution  of  the 
population  throughout  the  archipelago  must  be  understood  to  be 
able  to  appreciate  the  place  the  Chinese  have  in  the  trade,  the 
following  figures  have  been  compiled.  The  last  census  was  taken  in 
1905,  but  the  Government  has  endeavored  to  bring  the  figures  up 
to  date  by  making  an  estimate  of  population  as  of  December  31, 
1917,  and  this  estimate  is  generally  taken  as  authoritative.  The 
following  figures  are,  therefore,  approximate : 


Districts. 

Total  pop¬ 
ulation. 

Chinese. 

Percentage 
of  Chinese. 

All  other 
Asiatics. 

Java  and  Madoera . 

34, 157,383 

359, 862 

1.05 

33, 861 

Sumatra: 

East  Coast . 

894, 140 

133,444 

14. 92 

12, 211 

West  Coast . 

2,283,707 

16,353 

.72 

1,539 

Borneo: 

Western  district . 

573, 637 
940,866 

67, 018 
15, 187 

11.69 

Southern  and  eastern  districts . 

1.61 

1,429 

Banka . 

154, 178 

67, 269 

43.61 

4,445 

Billiton . . 

59, 481 

18, 976 

31.  93 

1,786 

All  other  districts . 

8, 140, 247 

91,994 

1. 13 

7,293 

Total . 

47,203,639 

770, 103 

1.63 

62,564 

Note. — This  segregation  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the  figures  given  for  contract  coolies  in  Banka  and  Bil- 
liton  in  the  official  estimate  of  population  of  1917.  As  the  figures  for  “all  other  Asiatics'’  include  Chinese, 
as  well  as  Arabs  and  others,  the  percentages  of  Chinese  population  in  “all  other  districts”  were  taken  from 
the  census  figures  of  1905. 


370  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

The  Chinese  are  importers  and  exporters  from  and  to  Singapore 
and  China  ports,  but  as  retailers  they  are  the  one  predominant  factor 
in  trade  in  almost  every  part  of  the  archipelago. 

Many  Chinese  have  acquired  great  wealth  in  dealing  in  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  the  archipelago,  and  they  are  the  speculators  who  hold  the 
bulk  of  the  reserves  of  produce.  They  are  investors  in  sugar  centrals 
and  operate  large  tracts  of  sugar  lands.  They  are  represented  in 
almost  every  branch  of  agricultural  and  industrial  endeavor  and 
are  the  carpenters,  tailors,  and  general  mechanics  of  the  country.  In 
the  East  Coast  district  of  Sumatra  Chinese  coolies  are  used  on  the 
tobacco  estates  for  certain  kinds  of  work,  and  in  the  tin  mines  on 
the  islands  of  Banka  and  Billiton  they  are  employed  under  contract 
by  the  Dutch  Government  and  the  Dutch  and  Chinese  mine  opera¬ 
tors.  In  the  western  part  of  Borneo,  in  the  hinterland  of  Pontianak, 
Chinese  plantations  have  been  opened  up  with  Chinese  labor,  which 
accounts  for  the  high  percentage  of  Chinese  population  there. 

COMPETITORS  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  Java  and  in  the  islands  to  the  east,  as  well 
as  along  the  West  Coast  of  Sumatra,  the  Arab  plays  some  part  in 
merchandising,  but  his  effort  is  generally  secondary  to  his  principal 
business  of  money  lending.  There  are  some  well-established  Arab 
merchants  who  have  attained  recognition  as  business  men  and  enjoy 
a  fair  amount  of  confidence.  Their  influence  with  the  natives  as 
leaders  in  the  Mohammedan  religion  is  great,  but  they  are  gener¬ 
ally  looked  upon  by  European  houses  as  usurers  and  as  unreliable 
business  people.  While  the  Chinese  often  is  a  usurer,  he  has  a 
faculty  of  keeping  the  regard  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives, 
but  the  Arab  in  Java  is  lacking  in  the  qualities  that  command  the 
regard  of  westerner  and  native  alike.  Along  the  coasts  of  Java 
and  Sumatra  the  Malays  do  a  successful  business  in  a  small  way  as 
mariner  merchants.  In  Palembang,  Djambi,  and  southern  Borneo 
the  Malay  is  the  most  important  factor  in  business.  To  the  south 
of  this  Malay  country  is  the  district  known  as  the  Lampongs,  from 
which  a  large  part  of  the  world’s  supply  of  pepper  comes.  The 
natives  here  are  business  men  and  all  the  labor  is  imported  from 
Java,  across  the  Strait  of  Soenda.  In  the  eastern  islands  the  Ma- 
doerese  are  wandering  traders,  a  hardy  people,  wThose  rugged  island 
home  does  not  yield  them  a  living.  The  Buganese  are  successful 
mariner  merchants. 

CHINESE  BUSINESS  MORALITY. 

While  this  report  deals  with  the  Chinese  of  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies,  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  China  to  get  the  basis  from  which 
to  develop  the  facts  as  they  are  found  here.  In  that  country  every 
Chinese  belongs  to  a  guild,  the  rules  of  which,  through  ages  of  evo¬ 
lution,  cover  almost  every  contingency  that  may  arise  in  the  course 
of  his  business  life.  There  are  bankers’  guilds,  silk  merchants’ 
guilds,  goldsmiths’  guilds,  beggars’  guilds,  and  even  thieves’  guilds 
and  guilds  that  cover  every  endeayor  that  life  involves.  Every  act 
of  the  life  of  the  Chinese  of  the  old  school  is  governed  by  some 
precedent  or  rule  with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar,  and  these 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


371 


rules  are  based  on  fair  dealing,  at  least  as  between  members.  He 
is  qualified  for  membership  by  birth  and  absorbs  a  knowledge  of 
the  guild  rules  as  a  child  while  listening  to  the  ever-recurring  dis¬ 
cussions  of  their  business  problems  by  his  elders.  Adherence  to  the 

fuild  laws  is  one  of  the  fundamentals  of  the  life  of  the  Chinese  in  their 
ealings  among  themselves.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  honesty,  but  of 
“  face  ”  and  of  business  economy.  As  they  adhere  to  the  rules  of 
their  guild  they  retain  a  certain  dignified  place  among  their  fellows, 
and  even  a  thief  or  a  beggar  is  a  kind  of  a  business  man  who  plies 
his  trade  according  to  rule.  The  Chinese  trader  has  a  very  high 
standing  in  the  social  fabric  of  China  and  is  looked  up  to  by  all 
classes  if  he  is  successful,  but  loses  caste  if  he  fails  to  abide  by  the 
rules  and  decisions  of  his  guild.  The  most  pitiable  creature  in  China 
is  the  man  who  has  lost  “face”  with  his  guild,  and  such  a  catastrophe 
is  often  followed  by  suicide.  • 

Knowing  this  the  early  foreign  traders  in  China  adapted  their 
business  customs  to  those  of  the  guilds  in  essentials,  and  they  had 
little  trouble  in  dealing  with  the  better  class  of  Chinese.  As  time 
went  on  elements  of  business  were  introduced  that  were  not  good 
and  many  of  the  Chinese  were  corrupted  in  their  dealings  with  the 
less  scrupulous  foreigners,  so  that  to-day  the  old-fashioned  word-of- 
mouth  contracts  are  extremely  dangerous,  and  some  of  the  Chinese 
have  come  to  recognize  one  code  of  business  morals  in  dealing  with 
foreigners  and  another  in  dealing  with  their  own  countrymen. 

In  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  the  Chinese  have  the  same  tradi¬ 
tions  as  their  countrymen  at  home.  They  do  not  have  the  multi¬ 
plicity  of  guilds  that  are  found  in  China,  but  there  are  many  organi¬ 
zations  that  are  hard  for  the  westerner  to  understand.  The  Chinese 
is  essentially  a  gentleman  and  is  a  pleasant  man  to  do  business  with, 
for  foreigners  who  understand  certain  essentials  in  dealing  with  them, 
but  it  is  necessary  for  foreigners  to  know  these  essentials  and  under¬ 
stand  something  of  the  intricacies  of  the  Chinese  mind  before  it  is 
quite  safe  to  do  business  with  them. 

In  Java  the  Chinese  have  come  under  the  influence  of  a  set  of  busi¬ 
ness  practices  to  which  he  has  been  able  to  adapt  himself  in  his  own 
way.  He  has  found  himself  opposed  to  conditions  he  never  had  to 
deal  with  at  home,  and  the  law  of  self-preservation  has  acted  as 
quickly  on  him  as  it  would  on  any  westerner,  for  he  is  an  astute  busi¬ 
ness  man.  No  one  can  say  whether  the  questionable  practices  that 
are  carried  on  were  started  by  the  Chinese  or  the  western  business 
man,  but  the  former  has  shown  that  he  can  win  at  any  game  of  busi¬ 
ness  that  has  been  presented  to  him  in  the  Orient. 

THE  CHINESE  AS  SPECULATORS. 

The  Dutch  business  men  in  this  colony  strive  to  do  business  on 
principles  that  have  won  for  them  a  very  prosperous  place  in  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  and  accordingly  they  avoid  speculation  when¬ 
ever  possible,  but  there  are  none  in  this  business  community  more 
capable  of  heavy  speculation  than  the  Dutch  and  the  Chinese.  Since 
a  country  like  this,  which  produces  large  quantities  of  raw  materials, 
must  have  speculators  to  hold  the  reserves  of  stock  on  their  way  from 
the  producer  to  the  consumer,  criticisms  heard  in  the  Java  ports 
regarding  the  Chinese  for  their  speculative  tendencies  do  not  seem  to 

19878°— 28 - 25 


372  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

be  well  founded.  The  Chinese  is  not  a  speculator  because  he  wishes  to 
perform  a  useful  function  in  the  business  world,  but  because  he  wants 
money ;  money  is  the  thing  that  he  is  always  after,  and  he  has  sought 
to  reduce  the  risks  to  an  absolute  minimum.  In  doing  this  he  has 
striven  to  pass  the  risks  on  to  the  importing  and  exporting  houses, 
and  he  has  had  a  measure  of  success.  Whether  the  Dutch  houses 
have  absorbed  these  risks  or  passed  them  on  to  some  third  party  is 
another  story,  but  the  Dutch  merchants  are  noted  for  taking  care  of 
themselves,  and  it  has  been  a  case  where  two  very  efficient  business 
systems  have  been  constantly  striving  to  get  an  advantage. 

THE  CHINESE  AS  LOCAL  CREDIT  RISKS. 

The  Chinese  seek  credit  for  merchandise  bought  and  the  importers 
as  carefully  strive  to  keep  the  credits  down.  There  is  a  feeling  of 
trade  jealousy  between  the  Dutch  houses  that  prevents  them  from 
using  their  very  excellent  “  handelsvereeniging,”  or  merchants’  associ¬ 
ations,  to  disseminate  credit  information.  The  Chinese  use  their 
surplus  money  to  buy  produce  on  which  they  normally  make  a  good 
profit,  but  they  are  not  content  with  ordinary  profits,  and  when 
their  judgment  tells  them  that  the  price  is  going  up  they  have  plenty 
of  courage  to  back  it.  The  importer  provides  the  cash,  or  a  part 
of  it,  with  which  the  small  Chinese  dealers  speculate  on  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  the  country;  this  is  as  it  appears  on  the  face  of  the  transac¬ 
tion,  but  underneath  the  surface  a  different  situation  appears.  The 
importers  extend  the  credits,  but  at  prices  that  provide  amply  for  an 
insurance  fund  to  take  care  of  the  losses  when  a  sudden  drop  in  the 
market  finds  the  Chinese  unable  to  pay. 

When  a  speculator  or  dealer  fails,  the  laws  and  customs  permit 
a  settlement  on  the  best  terms  that  the  debtor  can  bargain  for,  after 
which  he  resumes  operations  free  of  all  obligations.  Instances  have 
been  cited  of  settlements  made  on  a  basis  of  10  and  15  per  cent 
by  Chinese  who  are  to-day  among  the  wealthiest  men  in  their  dis¬ 
tricts,  and  these  men  have  no  thought  of  paying  off  the  losses.  Such 
settlements,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  would  not  be  acceptable  to  the 
creditors  were  the  losses  not  discounted  in  advance. 

TRANSACTION  OF  AMERICAN  BUSINESS  THROUGH  CHINESE 

FIRMS. 

It  is  not  fair  to  apply  generalities  to  all  of  any  class  of  people  or 
organizations,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  Chinese  themselves  are 
suspicious  of  corporate  bodies  and  do  not  care  to  invest  their  money 
where  they  do  not  have  a  constant  personal  control  over  it.  The  evi¬ 
dence  goes  to  show  that  many  Chinese  corporations  are  formed 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  the  liabilities,  and  the  greatest  care 
should  be  exercised  in  dealing  with  them.  There  are  many  ways 
of  holding  the  Chinese  in  line  with  good  business  practice,  and  one 
of  the  safest  is  to  make  one  or  more  of  them  directors  of  a  company 
and  personally  responsible,  because,  as  in  China,  the  Chinese  of  this 
colony  pride  themselves  on  their  personal  local  reputation  for  integ¬ 
rity  and  trustworthiness.  The  greatest  care  should,  therefore,  be 
taken  to  involve  the  local  reputation  of  the  responsible  individuals 
in  the  corporation.  The  time  may  come  when  the  Chinese  will  value 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


373 


their  reputations  with  American  exporters  as  they  now  do  their 
reputations  in  Java,  Singapore,  or  China,  but  to-day  a  member  of 
the  local  Chinese  business  community  suffers  no  loss  of  credit  by  the 
failure  of  a  corporation  with  which  he  has  been  associated  and  to 
which  he  has  loaned  his  moral  credit.  There  are  some  Chinese  indi¬ 
viduals  and  corporations  that  have  already  established  a  reputation 
for  fair  dealing  with  American  exporters  and  are  rated  alongside 
of  the  responsible  Dutch  houses. 

The  care  necessary  in  handling  this  trade  can  not  be  exercised 
from  a  distance  and  no  foreign  representative  can  transfer  his 
knowledge  of  local  conditions  to  his  home  office.  Furthermore,  no 
one  man  can  gain  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  whole  Chinese  business 
community  of  the  colony  to  enable  him  to  handle  local  credit  trans¬ 
actions,  nor  can  he  gain  a  knowledge  of  any  one  community  without 
an  organization  that  brings  to  him  daily  the  news  of  the  market 
place.  American  houses  sending  shipments  to  Chinese  concerns  in 
this  colony  on  D.  P.  and  D.  A.  terms  must  be  prepared  to  accept  the 
losses  incident  to  the  nonpayment  of  drafts,  and  in  disposing  of  such 
shipments  they  will  not  receive  much  assistance  from  the  regular 
importing  houses,  because  in  selling  to  these  Chinese  firms  the  Amer¬ 
ican  exporter  is  selling  to  the  regular  customers  of  the  importers. 

It  should  not  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  Chinese  are  familiar 
with  the  well-known  customs  of  business  in  the  American  or  Euro¬ 
pean  markets,  but  each  point  should  be  explained  to  them  in  letters 
that  they  can  read,  preferably  in  Dutch  or  Malay,  but  if  English  is 
used  it  should  be  simple  and  local  expressions  should  be  avoided. 
They  will  detect  and  resent  a  patronizing  tone  in  letters.  Corre¬ 
spondence  should  be  worded  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  feel  they 
are  known  by  reputation,  at  least,  and  if  a  member  of  the  staff  is 
personally  acquainted  with  any  of  them  such  information  as  he  has 
about  the  personalities  and  local  conditions  should  be  made  available 
to  and  wisely  used  by  the  correspondence  department. 

Prices  quoted  should  include  the  cost  of  substantial  packing.  Usu¬ 
ally  domestic  packing  is  not  strong  enough  for  shipment  to  the  ori¬ 
ental  Tropics.  If  domestic  packing  is  to  be  used  a  clear  understand¬ 
ing  of  the  fact  should  be  given  to  the  customer  in  writing. 

Until  such  time  as  each  individual  concern  shall  have  established 
his  financial  and  moral  credit,  American  houses  will  do  well  to 
transact  their  business  against  confirmed  credits,  but  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  burden  the  customer  by  keeping  these  confirmed  credits 
tied  up  for  unreasonable  lengths  of  time.  Except  with  a  few  of  the 
better  Dutch  and  foreign  houses,  all  credits  extended  to  this  colony 
have  some  element  of  risk  and  this  should  be  taken  into  considera¬ 
tion  in  making  prices. 

There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  to  enter  the  import 
field  and  the  natural  development  of  their  business  is  toward 
America.  American  houses  desiring  to  get  in  line  with  this  tendency 
would  do  well  to  observe  the  strictest  business  rules  and  make  a 
close  study  of  credits  at  first  hand. 

THE  CHINESE  IN  THE  MALAY  PENINSULA. 

According  to  an  official  estimate  of  the  population  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  made  in  1921  and  the  1911  census  of  the  Native  States, 


374  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

there  was  a  total  population  in  this  territory  of  2,734,276,  of  which 
985,472,  or  36  per  cent,  were  Chinese.  These  figures,  however,  do 
not  indicate  the  full  importance  of  the  Chinese  as  a  commerical  fac¬ 
tor.  Singapore,  the  key  port  of  southeastern  Asia,  has  a  population 
of  380,392,  of  which  275,370,  or  72  per  cent,  are  Chinese,  and  Penang, 
the  second  city  and  an  important  center  of  commerce,  has  a  popu¬ 
lation  of  152,642-  of  which  84,391,  or  55  per  cent,  are  Chinese.  These 
Chinese  and  their  fathers  have  contributed  much  that  has  made 
these  ports  what  they  are  to-day.  The  main  distribution  of  the  pop¬ 
ulations  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Political  divisions. 

• 

Chinese. 

Total. 

Per  cent 
of  Chinese. 

Straits  Settlements: 

Singapore  . 

275, 370 
84,391 
34, 995 

380,392 
152,642 
141, 115 

72 

Penang . 

55 

Province  Wellesley . 

24 

Din  dings . 

2, 579 
43, 729 

11,982 
153,008 
1,037,044 
686, 810 

21 

Malacca . 

28 

Federated  Malay  States . 

433, 244 
47,759 
63, 405 

41 

Protected  Malay  States,  except  Johore . 

7 

Johore . . . . . T . 

171, 283 

37 

Total . 

985, 472 

2,734,276 

36 

The  Chinese  mined  tin  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  long  before  the 
British  came,  and  many  families  have  been  in  the  district  so  long 
that  they  have  lost  all  but  a  sentimental  interest  in  their  ancestral 
homes.  They  came  almost  entirely  from  the  Provinces  of  Fukien 
and  Kwangtung  in  China  and  have  followed  the  usual  Chinese  cus¬ 
toms  of  forming  into  guilds,  or  “  kongsis,”  as  they  are  called  locally, 
to  one  of  which  every  Chinese  belongs.  These  organizations  exercise  a 
great  influence  on  the  economic  life  of  the  land  by  settling  disputes 
between  its  members  and  protecting  its  membership  from  abuses 
from  the  outside. 

As  the  native  labor  of  the  peninsula  is  not  suited  to  the  heavy  work 
in  the  tin  mines,  the  Chinese  have  recruited  laborers  from  China,  and 
the  traffic  is  so  large  that  the  transportation  of  coolies  from  China 
ports  is  a  very  important  item  in  the  shipping  business  of  south¬ 
eastern  Asia. 

The  Chinese  population  of  the  British  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
is  composed  principally  of  four  general  classes — merchants,  mine  op¬ 
erators,  laborers,  and  household  servants.  The  laborers  are  divided 
into  two  classes — mine  and  plantation  laborers.  This  has  been  a  land 
of  opportunity  for  the  Chinese  and,  while  the  lot  of  the  mining  coolie 
has  been  cruelly  hard  in  the  past  and  is  far  from  easy  to-day,  occa¬ 
sionally  one  would  rise  above  his  fellows  and  start  independent  oper¬ 
ations.  The  use  of  Chinese  coolies  on  the  plantations  is  of  more  re¬ 
cent  development. 

WEALTHY  CHINESE  FURNISH  MARKET  FOR  HIGH-PRICED  COMMODITIES. 

The  mine  operators,  merchants,  and  other  wealthy  classes  of 
Chinese,  with  few  exceptions,  have  evolved  out  of  the  mass  of  coolies 
imported  to  work  in  the  mines,  and  the  business  morals  of  these  peo¬ 
ple  speak  well  for  the  masses  of  the  southern  Provinces  of  China. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


375 


The  mine  operators  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  kind  of  mining 
that  has  been  carried  on  in  the  past,  which  involves  the  handling  of 
large  bodies  of  laborers,  but  this  system  is  gradually  being  replaced 
by  more  scientific  methods  and  several  of  the  larger  Chinese  opera¬ 
tions  have  modern  plants  and  are  working  on  as  scientific  principles 
as  the  British  and  French  owned  properties.  The  future  promises 
large  sales  of  mining  machinery  as  the  transition  from  the  old  to 
the  new  system  progresses.  There  is  a  large  number  of  wealthy 
Chinese  in  this  district,  especially  in  Singapore,  Penang,  and  Kuala 
Lumpur,  and  their  fortunes  have  increased  so  rapidly  that  there  has 
been  no  outlet  for  investment  capital,  as  the  Chinese  do  not  care  to 
invest  in  securities  or  in  operations  they  can  not  see  and  understand. 
The  planting  of  rubber  and  the  purchase  of  estates  already  planted 
has  been  a  temporary  outlet  for  much  of  this  capital.  The  Chinese 
spend  their  money  freely  and  provide  a  large  market  for  articles  of 
high  value  that  contribute  to  their  pleasure.  The  Straits  Settlements 
and  the  Federated  and  Protected  Malay  States  constitute  one  of  the 
best  markets  for  diamonds  and  expensive  jewelry,  bric-a-brac,  showy 
and  expensive  furniture,  mirrors,  and  other  articles  of  obvious  value. 

THE  CHINESE  MERCHANT. 

The  Chinese  merchant  is  the  principal  factor  in  thje  distribution 
of  western  manufactures  to  the  consumers.  There  is  a  constantly 
increasing  acreage  of  Chinese-owned  plantations,  which  draw  their 
supplies  largely  through  Chinese  channels,  and  the  smaller  trade 
depends  entirely  on  the  Chinese  shops,  which  are  found  even  in  the 
most  remote  districts. 

The  trade  of  the  natives,  Chinese,  and  Indians  in  all  their  require¬ 
ments  and  of  the  white  population  in  provisions  is  catered  to  almost 
entirely  by  the  Chinese,  most  of  whom  were  born  in  the  colony  and 
are  therefore  British  subjects.  These  Chinese  are  keen  business  men 
and  drive  a  hard  bargain,  but  generally  prefer  to  do  business  along 
lines  they  have  been  used  to  and  which  have  proven  satisfactory  to 
the  white  men  from  whom  they  buy.  One  Chinese  may  have  several 
stores,  and  often  the  successful  merchants  in  the  larger  towns  finance 
the  small  Chinese  dealers  in  the  kamponge  (native  villages),  thus 
controlling  their  trade. 

The  Chinese  retailing  system  reaches  every  part  of  the  country 
and  every  branch  of  the  trade  with  the  exception  of  the  machinery 
business.  Of  late  years  the  Chinese  have  been  putting  their  surplus 
money  into  rubber  plantations  and  to-day  some  of  the  largest  hold¬ 
ings  are  those  of  the  Chinese  u  towkays  ”  or  “  merchant  princes.” 
Supplies  for  these  plantations  are  usually  routed  through  a  Chinese 
business  organization  that  is  more  than  likely  affiliated  in  some  way 
with  the  plantation  owners. 

CREDIT  OF  THE  STRAITS  CHINESE. 

Many  of  these  Chinese  merchants  are  worthy  of  credit  and  get 
large  credits  from  the  British  houses,  both  for  merchandise  and  as 
advances  of  money  for  purchasing  raw  materials,  but  American 
manufacturers  will  find  that  they  will  need  to  study  the  situation 
very  carefully  before  they  are  warranted  in  extending  any  credits 
in  this  country.  It  is  not  meant  to  infer  that  the  Chinese  is  not  as 


376  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

honest  in  his  dealings  as  other  people,  but  he  is  tied  up  in  many 
ways  with  the  established  importers,  and  to  assert  his  independence 
of  them  might  cost  him  valuable  connections.  The  probabilities  are 
that  the  American  exporters  will  not  find  the  best  houses  seeking 
credit,  but  the  pressure  for  such  accommodation  will  come  from  the 
less  reliable  houses.  Even  if  the  financial  standing  is  satisfactory, 
the  Chinese  houses  do  not  understand  the  methods  and  customs  of 
importing  and  exporting  and  are  liable  to  arrive  at  conclusions  in 
their  dealings  that  will  be  embarrassing  to  American  exporters. 

A  few  Chinese  firms  in  the  Straits  Settlements  are  successfully  im¬ 
porting  general  lines  direct  from  abroad.  Besides  these,  there  are 
two  or  three  Chinese  automobile  importing  and  distributing  com¬ 
panies  which  have  established  their  credit  with  American  automobile 
manufacturers  on  the  same  basis  as  the  British  automobile  dealers. 
There  are  many  Chinese  concerns  who  either  have  or  can  get  all  the 
money  necessary  to  transact  a  large  importing  business  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  Chinese  are  destined  some  day  to  take  a  very  prominent 
part  in  importing  in  the  Straits  Settlements. 

Credits  should  be  established  by  the  slow  process  of  repeated  suc¬ 
cessful  business  transactions,  as  it  is  built  up  in  America.  One  of  the 
many  reasons  why  credits  should  be  extended  only  after  a  proving 
period  is  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  Chinese  business  men 
are  inveterate  gamblers  in  produce  and  in  imports,  especially  in 
manufactured  cotton,  and  a  sudden  drop  in  the  price  of  the  com¬ 
modity  gambled  in  might  mean  the  collapse  of  a  firm  that  had  previ¬ 
ously  enjoyed  the  best  of  bank  references.  American  credits  to 
Chinese  firms  are  not  warranted  by  ordinary  profits,  and  the  Ameri¬ 
can  exporter  who  gives  credit  at  high  prices,  without  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  local  conditions,  may  find  he  has  been  furnishing 
capital  to  his  customer  for  gambling. 

The  Chinese  of  the  Straits  Settlements  have  passed  through  a  long 
period  of  successful  operation  as  merchants  and  as  speculators.  The 
Straits  Chinese  is  not  a  speculator  in  the  same  sense  or  degree  as  his 
brothers  in  Netherlands  East  Indies,  but  the  development  of  the  rub¬ 
ber  industry,  and  especially  the  establishment  of  the  rubber  auction 
in  Singapore,  has  given  a  new  opening  for  speculation  there.  Slow 
declines  in  the  market  are  not  dangerous,  but  sudden  drops  are 
fraught  with  dire  consequences.  Exporters  extending  credits  to  the 
Straits  Chinese  would  do  well  to  watch  the  trade  tendencies  in  their 
bearing  on  products  of  the  Tropics  and  the  world  markets  for  rubber, 
tin,  copra  and  coconut  oil,  tapioca,  sugar,  and  other  major  products, 
as  well  as  the  market  for  manufactured  cotton. 

BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION  IN  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

While  the  types  of  the  population  in  British  Malaya  are  much 
the  same  as  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  the  imports  have  a 
similarity  to  the  Dutch  imports,  the  methods  of  handling  the  trade 
differ  in  many  essentials.  These  differences  are  largely  due  to  the 
dissimilarity  of  the  British  and  Dutch  temperaments  and  of  the 
export  trade  of  the  two  colonies. 

Import  and  export  houses. — The  big,  finely  organized  British 
import  and  export  houses  constitute  the  first  factor  in  introducing 
most  lines  of  merchandise  to  the  trade  of  British  Malaya.  These* 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


377 


houses  usually  have  their  headquarters  in  Singapore,  with  branches 
or  very  close  connections  in  Penang  (also  in  the  Straits  Settlements), 
and  in  Kuala  Lumpur  and  Ipoh  in  the  Federated  Malay  States. 
The  fact  that  the  products  of  this  colony  consist  of  but  three  prin¬ 
cipal  items — rubber,  tin,  and  copra — with  the  remainder  negligible, 
has  eliminated  to  a  large  extent  the  temptation  to  gamble  in  the 
minor  products,  a  temptation  which  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
ruin  of  many  Chinese  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  this,  with 
the  continued  prosperity  of  the  colony  and  the  care  which  has  been 
taken  by  the  British  importing  houses  in  extending  credits  to  the 
Chinese,  lias  built  up  a  class  of  distributers  that  is  doing  a  safe 
business. 

Much  that  is  good  in  the  organization  of  business  in  the  colony 
is  due  to  these  larger  import  houses,  and  their  agencies  show  great 
care  in  maintaining  a  balance  between  the  accounts  of'  selling  agents 
and  those  of  buying  agents.  One  of  the  principal  houses  of  this 
type  has  the  following  exclusive  agencies:  9  insurance  agencies,  7 
banking  institutions,  1  independent  Government,  1  steamship  com¬ 
pany,  2  oil-producing  companies,  3  tin  mines,  28  rubber  estates,  9 
engineering  companies,  8  distilleries  and  breweries,  5  motor-car 
manufacturers,  4  manufacturers  of  explosives,  etc.,  5  manufacturers 
of  provisions,  and  1  tea  agency,  besides  agencies  for  the  manufacture 
of  ship  composition,  fencing,  undershirts,  miners’  candles,  roofing, 
roofing  nails,  canvas  and  twine,  wire  ropes,  Portland  cement,  belt¬ 
ing,  a  roof-cooling  composition,  disinfectants,  soap,  patent  bolts 
and  washers,  safes,  patent  drainpipes,  tiling  and  sanitary  appli¬ 
ances,  a  pain  killer  and  other  patent  medicines,  mineral  water,  wood¬ 
preserving  and  white-ant-destroying  paints,  tobacco  and  cigarettes, 
perfumery,  a  sugar  refinery,  and  several  cotton  mills. 

The  British  department  stores. — There  are  four  very  successful 
and  well-organized  British  retail  institutions  in  the  principal  towns 
of  the  peninsula,  which  cater  to  the  white  and  half-caste  population 
and  the  better  class  of  Chinese  trade.  In  Singapore  there  are  three 
of  these  department  stores,  one  of  which  has  a  branch  in  Kuala 
Lumpur,  a*  second  has  nine  branch  stores  in  the  larger  of  the  towns 
in  the  Native  States  and  in  Penang,  and  the  third,  while  it  has  no 
branches,  keeps  several  men  traveling  constantly  among  the  planta¬ 
tions  and  mines.  The  headquarters  of  the  fourth  is  at  Penang,  with 
a  branch  in  Ipoh,  and  travelers  from  this  house  call  at  the  plantations 
and  mines  in  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula  and  along  the  coast 
where  there  are  good  steamship  communications  with  Penang.  These 
are  long-established  concerns  and  they  carry  stocks  of  wide  range. 
One  has  its  head  office  in  London  and  is  a  part  of  a  chain  of  stores 
that  includes  the  British  South  African  colonies  and  India  in  its 
field  of  operations.  The  local  managers  of  its  10  retail  stores  in 
Malaya  may  make  recommendations  as  to  the  stock  needed,  and  their 
recommendations  carry  considerable  weight,  but  the  purchases  have 
either  to  be  made  or  confirmed  in  London. 

Machinery . — The  importing  houses  are  often  the  channel  for  the 
importation  of  machinery  for  the  plantations.  In  many  cases  it  is 
bought  through  the  home  offices  of  the  plantation  companies  in  Lon¬ 
don,  but  much  of  it  is  routed  through  the  engineering  companies 
which  have  shops  for  repair  and  construction  in  Singapore  and  in 


378  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

the  towns  near  the  plantations.  Some  machinery,  especially  for  the 
treatment  of  the  lower  grades  of  rubber,  is  made  at  Singapore  by  one 
of  these  companies.  These  engineering  companies  are  desirable  rep¬ 
resentatives  for  such  machinery  as  requires  careful  repair  work  and 
periodical  expert  attention,  such  as  electric-lighting  outfits  and  in¬ 
ternal-combustion  engines. 

Much  of  the  dredging  machinery  that  is  installed  in  British  Malaya 
has  been  imported  without  the  assistance  of  the  import  houses.  Aus¬ 
tralian  capital  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  development  of 
tin  dredging  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and  the  Australian  mining 
'  companies  or  their  contractors  have  imported  most  of  this  machinery. 
The  success  of  the  tin  dredgers  has  been  quite  uniform  from  the 
beginning.  Business  can  be  done  with  these  companies  direct  by 
exporters  who  will  make  a  careful  preliminary  credit  investigation 
and  who  keep  in  touch  with  the  general  trend  of  the  tin  market. 

Machinery  for  the  Chinese-owned  lompongs,  or  open-cast  mines, 
has  usually  come  through  the  ordinary  importing  channels,  but  the 
Chinese  are  only  beginning  to  use  machinery  in  their  mining  opera¬ 
tions.  At  present  they  have  a  heterogeneous  equipment  of  second¬ 
hand  machinery,  especially  for  pumping  purposes,  and  it  is  thought 
that  before  long  these  original  developers  of  tin  mining  in  British 
Malaya  will  equip  the  best  of  their  properties  with  modern  plants, 
as  indeed  some  of  them  have  already  done. 

Large  cooperative  mining  operations,  principally  British,  are  often 
allied  financially  with  the  importing  houses,  but  the  selection  of  the 
type  of  machinery  to  be  installed  is  made  on  the  advice  of  experts 
within  the  organization  or  of  consulting  engineers.  One  firm  of  con¬ 
sulting  engineers  in  Ipoh  is  particularly  influential,  and  mining 
machinery  manufacturers  would  do  well  to  make  their  products 
known  to  this  firm. 

Building  material. — Besides  the  engineering  firms  mentioned  above 
there  are  engineering  concerns  specializing  on  building  and  con¬ 
struction  work.  Some  of  these  are  in  a  position  to  import  the  ma¬ 
terials  used  in  their  contracts. 

Drugs  and  druggists'  supplies. — The  drug  business  in  British 
Malaya  is  under  the  control  of  the  medical  fraternity  and  the  or¬ 
ganizations  of  most  of  the  houses  are  of  long  standing.  While  the 
import  houses  are  resorted  to  for  financing  imports  in  all  lines  of 
business,  the  drug  trade  nominally  imports  direct. 

Ships'  supplies. — The  provisioning  of  ships  is  an  important  busi¬ 
ness  in  Singapore  and  Penang.  It  is  carried  on  largely  by  the 
Chinese,  many  of  whom  are  financially  sound,  but  like  most  Chinese, 
they  leave  the  importing  to  the  British  or  foreign  houses.  Ship 
chandlery  comes  mostly  through  the  import  houses,  from  which  it 
is  routed  through  the  local  Chinese  or  British  chandlers  or  goes 
direct  to  the  shipowners.  Engine-room  supplies  are  bought  through 
the  import  houses,  through  the  engineering  houses,  and  through 
branch  houses  of  the  manufacturers. 

Musical  instruments. — There  are  two  old-established  musical  in¬ 
strument  houses  in  the  Orient  with  branch  houses  throughout  China 
and  British  Malaya.  Each  has  a  branch  at  Singapore,  Penang,  and 
Kuala  Lumpur. 

Paper  and  printers'  supplies . — Some  of  the  import  houses  stock 
paper  and  printers’  supplies,  but  the  larger  users  of  paper,  such  as 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  31.— RAFFLES  SQUARE.  THE  RETAIL  CENTER  OF  SINGAPORE. 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  218. 


FIG.  32.— PEDDLER  OF  GENERAL  MERCHANDISE,  JAVA. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


379 


the  newspapers  and  the  more  important  printers,  carry  their  own 
stocks  of  paper  and  other  supplies  well  in  advance  of  their  needs. 

Plantation  supplies. — Many  of  the  import  houses  supply  the  plan¬ 
tations  directly,  but  in  the  Native  States  there  are  mercantile  houses 
specializing  in  plantation  supplies,  from  acetic  acid  and  latex  cups 
to  provisions  and  other  household  supplies.  An  important  channel 
for  supplies  for  the  plantations  are  the  organizations  making  a 
special  business  of  representing  plantations,  which  often  receive 
their  appointment  from  the  directors  in  London  and  are  in  author¬ 
ity  over  the  plantation  managers. 

British  Borneo. — Conditions  in  Borneo  are  so  different  from  those 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula  that  little  of  the  above  applies  there.  In 
Sandakan  and  Jesselton,  in  British  North  Borneo,  and  Kuching,  in 
Sarawak,  there  are  two  well-organized  British  importing  houses 
that  do  practically  all  the  business.  Most  of  the  plantations  are 
owned  or  controlled  by  large  British  plantation  companies,  some  of 
which  supply  their  properties  from  London. 

ASSEMBLING  OF  PRODUCE  IN  SINGAPORE  OR  PENANG  FOR 

EXPORT. 

With  the  exception  of  rubber  and  tin,  practically  all  of  the  prod¬ 
ucts  exported  from  Singapore  and  Penang  reach  the  exporters 
through  Chinese  dealers  who  collect  and  prepare  them  for  the  world’s 
markets.  With  a  few  minor  exceptions,  the  Chinese  do  little  of  the 
export  business  to  the  European  or  American  markets,  but  largely 
control  the  export  of  products  for  Chinese  and  native  consumption 
to  Siam,  French  Indo-China,  and  China,  and  are  the  distributers  of 
western  products  imported  by  the  European  houses.  The  Chinese 
business  organization  is  the  foundation  on  which  the  business  of 
Singapore  and  Penang  is  built.  It  extends  not  only  throughout  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  but  to  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  the  Smaller  Soenda 
Islands  lying  to  the  east  of  J ava,  to  the  island  of  Celebes,  the  Moluc¬ 
cas,  and  as  far  as  New  Guinea.  In  some  districts,  such  as,  Sarawak, 
Labuan,  Brunei,  and  British  North  Borneo,  in  British  Malaya;  Pon- 
tianak,  in  Dutch  Borneo;  Palembang  and  Djambi,  in  Sumatra;  and 
Riouw,  in  the  Riouw  Archipelago,  it'  practically  controls  the  forest 
and  agricultural  products  gathered  or  produced  by  the  natives.  In 
Macassar,  while  there  is  a  large  direct  export  to  western  markets,  the 
branches  and  agencies  of  the  Singapore  Chinese  merchants  are  a  very 
important  element  in  the  business  community.  Southern  and  eastern 
Borneo,  the  Sumatra  East  Coast,  and  a  part  of  the  West  Coast  are 
very  largely  tributary,  commercially,  to  Singapore  and  Penang 
through  the  Chinese. 

The  methods  of  this  Chinese  business  organization  are  complicated 
and  vary  according  to  the  products  handled,  the  local  conditions,  and 
the  fluctuations  of  the  market.  For  instance,  pepper  from  Atjeh 
may  be  shipped  past  Penang  to  Singapore  in  expectation  of  finding 
a  better  price,  and  then  shipped  back  to  Penang  if  attracted  by  ad¬ 
vancing  prices.  The  following  description  of  the  organization  covers 
the  various  elements. 

A-l. — Throughout  British  Malaya  and  in  all  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  with  the  exception  of  some  districts  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra,  the  Chinese  small  shopkeeper  dominates  the  retail  business. 


380  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


This  Chinese  dealer  in  the  districts  of  production  accumulates  stocks 
of  produce  in  exchange  for  manufactures  imported  from  Western 
countries  and  from  China  and  Japan  to  supply  a  local  demand.  His 
stock  in  trade  consists  mainly  of  rice,  salt,  tobacco,  cigarettes,  gam- 
bier,  lime,  betel  nuts  (pinang  or  areca  nuts,  when  not  grown  in  suffi¬ 
cient  quantities  locally),  cotton  cloth,  candles,  simple  hardware, 
chunkoels  (or  patchoels),  arits,  nails,  wire,  cooking  utensils,  and 
sundry  other  articles  for  native  use  or  consumption.  This  dealer’s 
purchases  from  the  natives  are,  more  often  than  not,  taken  in  settle¬ 
ment  of'  accounts  accrued  during  the  growing  season  or  for  cash 
advanced. 

A-2. — Trader  sent  out  by  B  to  purchase  for  cash.  This  man  is 
sometimes  a  speculator  on  his  own  account  and  is  often  intrusted 
with  large  sums  of  money  by  B.  He  tours  the  district,  sometimes 
purchasing  from  A-l  and  always  from  the  producer  direct. 

B.  — A  large  dealer  in  the  country  of  origin  of  the  produce.  This 
dealer,  who  is  usually  located  at  a  port,  has  close  connections  with 
A-l,  whom  he  supplies  with  merchandise,  often  on  liberal  credit 
terms,  taking  payment  in  cash  or  produce,  also  with  A-2,  to  whom  he 
advances  money  for  purchases,  and  with  C,  from  whom  he  receives 
advances  in  merchandise  and,  when  needed,  in  cash,  and  to  whom  he 
ships  the  produce  on  consignment. 

C.  — A  merchant  in  Singapore  or  Penang,  who  acts  as  the  banker 
and  agent  of  B,  or  controls  him  in  some  other  way.  He  is  either  a 
dealer  in  the  various  commodities  sold  by  B  to  A-l  or  controls  a 
company  from  whom  B  buys  his  supplies.  He  invariably  has  a  well- 
established  credit  with  one  or  more  of  the  European  importing  and 
exporting  houses  and  is  very  often  a  heavy  speculator  on  his  own 
account.  Most  of  the  produce  he  imports  is  received  on  a  consign¬ 
ment  basis.  He  regrades,  mixes,  and  sometimes  remanufactures  the 
produce  so  as  to  get  the  highest  returns,  and  sells  it  to  the  local 
speculators  or  to  the  exporting  houses  in  Singapore,  Penang,  or  other 
oriental  markets.  Some  of  the  Chinese  houses  of  this  type  are  of 
the  highest  commercial  integrity,  and  the  qualities  of  the  produce 
sold  by  them  may  be  depended  upon  under  any  circumstances ;  others 
are  very  careful  of  their  reputation  in  the  local  markets  and  in  other 
oriental  markets  where  they  have  long-established  connections,  but 
would  not  hesitate  to  take  unfair  advantage  of  customers  in  markets 
in  which  they  have  no  established  credit  (or  “  face”)  to  lose.  Local 
buyers  who  know  how  to  deal  with  the  Chinese  find  this  class  of 
Chinese  business  men  dependable  and  honorable  within  certain  limits. 

D.  — There  is  a  fourth  trader  who  regrades  the  produce  and,  in 
some  cases,  remills  or  otherwise  prepares  it  for  export.  C  often  per¬ 
forms  this  function,  but  in  the  specialized  products,  such  as  flie 
guttas,  rattans,  and  wild  and  native-grown  rubbers,  he  sells  the 
produce  to  D,  who  is  always  a  speculator. 

E.  — There  is  a  fifth  class,  which  has  grown  to  large  proportions 
during  the  past  few  years,  made  up  of  speculators  who  contribute 
little  or  nothing  to  the  quality  of  the  product  or  to  the  flow  of  trade. 
The  financing  of  imports  of  produce  and  their  course  through  the 
regrading  or  remilling  processes  involves  a  certain  element  of  specu¬ 
lation,  but  this  is  unavoidable,  and,  while  A-l,  A-2,  B,  C,  and  I) 
sometimes  take  large  chances,  they  are  usually  reasonably  sure  of 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


381 


selling  their  produce  at  a  profit,  and  are  entitled  to  the  credit 
accommodations  due  to  their  position  in  the  trade.  The  purely 
speculative  houses  operated  heavily  during  the  period  of  price  infla¬ 
tion  and  made  large  profits,  but  most  of  these  profits  were  lost  during 
the  period  of  deflation  and  a  large  number  of  them  failed.  This 
class  constitutes  the  most  dangerous  element  in  the  trade. 

CREDIT. 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  matter  of  extending  credit  to  the 
Chinese  has  been  given  some  attention.  The  foreign  business  com¬ 
munities  present  every  phase  of  credit  risks,  from  the  big  concerns 
subsidiary  to  the  leading  banks  and  shipping  companies  to  the  irre¬ 
sponsible  corporations  working  on  insufficient  capital  with  no  moral 
credit  whatever.  As  a  rule  the  larger  concerns  do  not  ask  for  credit, 
and  the  most  insistent  demands  for  credit  come  from  those  least 
worthy  of  it.  There  are  many  concerns  working  on  limited  capital 
that  are  worthy  of  reasonable  credit,  and  European  exporters  are 
giving  and  will  continue  to  give  them  terms  up  to  four  months’ 
sight  and  even  longer.  A  knowledge  of  the  credit  rating  of  these 
concerns  can  only  be  had  by  a  close  study  of  the  personnel  of  the 
business  community  and  the  experience  or  repeated  business  trans¬ 
actions.  There  are,  however,  a  few  aids  to  a  study  of  credits  that 
will  be  of  value  to  American  exporters. 

The  Javasche  Courant,  the  official  Government  organ,  issues  sup¬ 
plements  containing  the  articles  of  incorporation  of  all  companies. 
This  publication  also  lists  all  failures  and  contains  other  business 
notices. 

The  Handboek  voor  Cultuur  en  Handelsondernemmingen  van 
Nederlandsch  Indie,  published  at  Amsterdam,  lists  all  corporations 
doing  business  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  It  contains  a  great 
deal  of  useful  information  and  is  thoroughly  cross-indexed  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  know  something  of  the  relations  of  the  various  com¬ 
panies  with  each  other  through  a  study  of  the  interlocking  direc¬ 
torates. 

Charts  have  been  prepared  showing  the  fluctuations  in  price  of 
sugar,  coffee,  copra,  and  a  staple  weave  of  cotton  textiles,  and  a  table 
showing  the  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  rubber.  On  the  charts  of 
sugar,  coffee,  and  copra  is  a  line  showing  the  approximate  cost  of 
production.  These  charts  have  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  credits 
in  these  colonies  as  similar  charts  covering  wheat,  corn,  hogs,  and 
beef  have  to  credits  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but  they  differ  in  that 
there  is  a  greater  amount  of  speculation  among  the  merchants. 

When  the  prices  reach  far  above  production  costs  it  is  probably 
due  either  to  unnatural  speculation  in  the  local  markets  or  to  some 
temporary  condition  abroad  that  can  not  be  expected  to  continue  and 
credit  conditions  are  correspondingly  weakened.  The  period  leading 
up  to  June,  1920,  was  one  of  continuously  rising  prices  for  a  long 
time,  but  it  presaged  the  inevitable  drop  which  is  shown  graphically 
in  the  sugar  and  coffee  charts.  Figures  supplementary  to  these 
charts  may  be  had  weekly  in  the  Weekly  Market  Report  of  the 
Soerabayasche  Handelsvereeniging. 

Importers  have  to  cover  their  ordinary  needs  for  from  six  months 
to  a  year  ahead  and  their  commitments  at  speculative  prices  involve 


382  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

large  risks.  Therefore,  the  large  capitals  and  the  reserves  shown  do 
not  imply  the  same  stability  of  credit  that  similar  figures  would  mean 
in  connection  with  a  credit  in  the  United  States. 

ADVERTISING. 

Any  serious  student  of  advertising  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  will 
find  much  in  the  foregoing  and  succeeding  chapters  and  sections 
that  bear  directly  on  this  subject.  The  sections  covering  geography, 
distribution  of  population,  the  oriental  peoples,  racial  groupings, 
labor,  commercial  organizations,  exporters  and  importers,  the 
Chinese,  and  credit  should  all  be  read  in  connection  with  this 

section,  as  well  as  the  chapter  on  import  commodities. 

* 

POPULATION  AND  EARNING  CAPACITY. 

As  stated  elsewhere,  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  has  an  area  of 
770,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  47,000,000.  Java,  with 
51,000  square  miles,  has  a  density  of  population  of  666  people  to 
the  square  mile,  while  the  Outer  Possessions  have  a  density  of  but 
18;  thus  the  main  area  to  be  considered,  and  the  one  in  which  all 
initial  advertising  campaigns  will  be  made,  is  Java. 

This  population  is  very  largely  agricultural,  and  the  industries 
draw  on  the  agricultural  population  for  their  labor,  most  of  which 
is  required  for  only  a  part  of  the  year.  Wages  vary  in  the  different 
sections,  ranging  from  0.25  florin  per  day  (about  10  cents  U.  S.) 
for  adult  male  coolies  to  4  florins  for  highly  skilled  natives  (1 
florin=$0.402  mint  par  U.  S.). 

The  advertising  problem  is  very  much  complicated  by  the  poly¬ 
glot  character  of  the  people  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  In  the  Straits 
Settlements,  the  Federated  Malay  States,  and  the  Protected  Malay 
States  west  of  the  mountain  range  which  divides  the  peninsula 
from  north  to  south  the  large  bulk  of  the  population  is  centered, 
as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  the  wealth.  For  the  purposes  of  this 
analysis  this  district  will  be  considered,  and  it  may  safely  be  said 
that  any  advertising  plan  worked  out  successfully  for  this  territory 
can  easily  be  adapted  for  the  other  and  less  thickly  populated 
districts. 

While  the  States  of  Trengganoe  and  Kelantan  have  a  population 
of  440,000,  of  which  14,000  are  .Chinese,  these  people  are  scattered 
over  a  wide  territory,  with  no  transportation  facilities  other  than 
the  waterways,  and  there  is  little  economic  development.  British 
Borneo,  outside  two  small  districts,  is  a  wild  country,  a  large  part 
of  the  800,000  natives  being  only  a  few  steps  removed  from 
savagery. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  JAVAN  POPULATION,  BY  RACES. 

The  native  population  of  Java  is  made  up  of  Javanese  (about 
22,000,000),  Soendoenese  (about  7,000,000),  Madoerese  (about  2,- 
500,000  on  the  island  of  Java),  and  approximately  2,000,000  Malays. 
The  Chinese,  who  are  numerically  much  less  important,  constitute 
a  purchasing  and  sales  force  of  prime  importance.  The  Arab 
population  is  generally  found  in  the  larger  towns  and  the  cities  and 
is  not  an  important  factor  in  any  ordinary  advertising  campaign. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


383 


The  European  population  is  approximately  110,000  and  includes 
people  of  pure  Dutch  blood  and  mixed  blood,  descendants  of  Dutch 
fathers. 

LANGUAGES. 

In  Netherlands  Indies  the  languages  to  be  considered  in  advertis* 
ing  are  Javanese,  Soendanese,  Malay,  Chinese,  and  Dutch.  Javanese 
should  be  replaced  by  Soendanese  in  campaigns  in  the  Soendanese 
country,  while  in  the  Outer  Possessions  both  would  be  abandoned 
for  Malay  and  the  script  of  the  local  population.  Malay  and  Chinese 
are  usually  included  in  all  poster  advertising.  Dutch  is  the  language 
of  the  masters  of  the  country  and  is  understood  and  read  by  many 
of  the  Chinese  and  by  the  European  population. 

English,  Malay,  Chinese,  and  Tamil  are  the  languages  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  advertising  in  British  Malaya,  and  the  Malay 
is  divided  into  Arabic  script  and  Roman  characters.  All  Europeans 
and  Eurasians  speak  and  read  English,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
Chinese  who  have  reached  a  position  of  prosperity.  Many  of  the 
native-born  Chinese,  or  “  Babas,”  as  they  are  called  locally,  have 
gone  to  the  schools  for  Chinese  and  have  gained  a  very  good  knowl¬ 
edge  of  English,  which  is  the  language  of  the  larger  business  of  the 
ports. 

It  is  a  common  saying  that  500  words  will  include  the  whole 
Malay  language,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Malay  language  of 
the  sultans,  rajahs,  and  tunggkus  has  a  very  wide  vocabulary.  The 
Malay  of  the  kampong  (village)  has  a  very  limited  vocabulary,  with 
a  mixture  of  English  and  Portuguese  to  express  objects  and  customs 
brought  in  by  the  westerners.  In  the  schools  the  Arabic  script  is 
taught  and  many  of  the  Malays  read  this  picturesque  writing.  The 
language  of  the  bazaar,  or  the  market  place,  is  a  mongrel  Malay, 
popularly  called  “  Bazaar  Malay,”  and  this  may  truthfully  be  said 
to  contain  but  a  few  hundred  words.  It  is  the  lingua  franca  of  busi¬ 
ness  with  the  Chinese  and  natives  throughout  British  Malaya  and 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  Foreigners  all  attain  some  knowedge 
of  this  language  in  the  first  year  of  their  residence,  and  in  its  Roman¬ 
ized  form  advertising  in  Malay  is  not  without  vajue  in  reaching  the 
foreigners  in  poster  advertising. 

A  constant  stream  of  Chinese  laborers  flows  into  British  Malaya 
from  Fukien  and  Kwangtung  Provinces  in  China,  generally  on  con¬ 
tract  to  work  in  the  tin  mines  or  on  the  rubber  plantations.  What 
these  Chinese  know  of  a  written  language  is  in  the  Chinese  char¬ 
acters.  In  every  large  kampong  will  be  found  private  Chinese 
schools,  where  the  children  of  immigrants  are  taught  the  language 
of  their  fathers. 

The  Tamil  language  was  imported  with  the  Tamil  or  Ivling  people 
from  southern  India.  These  people  are  brought  in  under  a  rather 
loose  contract  to  work  on  the  rubber  plantations,  where  the  work  is 
not  heavy  and,  compared  with  the  Indian  standards,  is  well  paid. 
The  ruling  wage  for  the  ordinary  plantation  coolie  is  12  Straits 
dollars  per  month,  about  23  cents  per  day,  with  free  housing  and 
hospital  service.  Both  men  and  women  work  on  what  is  practically 
equality  as  to  service.  They  know  enough  of  their  written  language 
to  read  simple  words,  and  the  advertising  in  Tamil  is  generally 
“  written  down  ”  to  the  coolie  class.  Jaffna  people  (southern  Indians 


I 


384  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

of  a  much  better  type  than  the  Tamils),  who  are  employed  as  station 
agents  and  clerks  in  the  railroad  and  other  Government  offices,  and 
the  Singalese  (Ceylon  men),  who  generally  have  a  purchasing 
capacity  above  the  average,  also  read  the  Tamil  characters. 

TRANSLATIONS. 

The  making  of  correct  and  effective  translations  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  problems  in  advertising  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies. 
Translations  into  Dutch  made  in  the  Netherlands  are  likely  to  miss  in 
their  appeal  to  the  residents  of  the  colony,  as  there  are  many  local¬ 
isms  and  conditions  of  life  are  different  from  those  of  the  homeland. 
Local  translation  bureaus  can  not  be  expected  to  take  more  than  a 
perfunctory  interest  in  translations,  and  in  translating  technical 
matter  they  are  not  to  be  relied  upon.  American  manufacturers  with 
good  representation  in  the  colony  would  best  intrust  their  transla¬ 
tions  to  their  agents  who  understand  local  conditions. 

The  problem  of  making  correct  translations  is  met  with  also  in 
British  Malaya,  as  there  is  no  organization  or  agency  to  handle  these 
matters,  and  the  small  advertiser  must  depend  on  getting  the  over¬ 
time  work  of  the  few  good  translators  working  for  concerns  doing 
sufficient  advertising  to  warrant  them  in  training  a  staff.  The  busi¬ 
ness  houses  acting  as  agents  can  generally  arrange  to  have  the  trans¬ 
lations  done  for  a  small  advertising  campaign,  but  for  any  consider¬ 
able  campaign  this  matter  would  have  to  be  studied  on  the  ground. 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  OTHER  PERIODICALS. 

The  following  publications  include  all  the  more  important  me¬ 
diums  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies: 

Het  Nieuws  van  den  Dag  voor  Nederlandsch  Indie,  Batavia. — Published  daily; 
language,  Dutch ;  claims  10,000  circulation.  Circulates  among  all  classes  and 
is  the  most  popular  of  Batavia’s  newspapers.  Caters  to  the  general  public. 
Probably  25  per  cent  of  its  circulation  is  in  Batavia  and  most  of  the  balance 
in  the  outlying  districts  in  west  Java. 

Java  Bode ,  Batavia. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch.  Made  no  statement 
as  to  circulation ;  probably  from  2,000  to  3,000.  This  journal  is  said  to  be  partly 
owned  by  the  Government  and  to  be  the  organ  of  the  administration.  It  is  read 
by  Government  officials. 

Bataviaasch  Nieuwshlad,  Batavia. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch.  Made 
no  statement  as  to  circulation ;  probably  not  more  than  1,500  copies.  Manage¬ 
ment  states  that  it  circulates  among  all  classes.  From  other  sources  it  is 
learned  that  it  advocates  the  cause  of  the  people  of  mixed  blood  and  is  much 
read  by  them.  It  is  said  that  at  one  time  it  was  the  most  influential  and  widely 
read  newspaper  in  the  colony. 

Bataviaasch  Handelshlad,  Batavia. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch.  Cir¬ 
culation  probably  not  more  than  1,200  to  1,300;  no  statement  made.  Circulates 
among  people  with  but  small  purchasing  capacity. 

Advertentie  Bode,  Batavia. — Published  twice  a  week ;  language,  Dutch.  This 
publication  is  unimportant. 

Het  Indische  Leven,  Batavia. — Published  weekly  (illustrated)  ;  language, 
Dutch.  Management  made  no  statement  as  to  number  of  copies  published  and 
no  reliable  estimate  could  be  made.  It  is  the  most  popular  weekly  publication 
in  the  colony  and  is  considered  to  be  a  good  medium  for  advertising  to  the  better 
classes. 

De  Banier,  Batavia. — Published  weekly ;  language,  Dutch.  Made  no  state¬ 
ment  as  to  number  of  copies  published.  Claims  to  circulate  among  the  more 
intellectual  people  of  the  colony. 

Vrijzinning  T Veekblad,  Batavia. — Published  weekly ;  language,  Dutch. 

De  Taak,  Batavia. — Published  weekly ;  language,  Dutch. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


385 


Netherlands  India  Rubber  Tijdschrift,  Batavia. — Published  every  two  months; 
language,  Dutch.  Circulates  among  rubber  planters  and  dealers  in  rubber.  A 
good  medium  for  advertising  rubber-estate  supplies,  foodstuffs,  and  household 
supplies  to  readers  of  good  purchasing  capacity. 

Be  Locomotief ,  Semarang. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch;  claims  4,000 
circulation.  This  newspaper  is  the  conservative  organ  of  Semarang.  The  prob¬ 
abilities  are  that  fully  60  per  cent  of  its  circulation  is  in  central  Java  outside 
of  Semarang. 

Het  Dagblad,  Semarang. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch.  No  statement 
of  circulation  made ;  probably  small  and  of  little  importance. 

Be  Beweging,  Semarang. — Published  weekly ;  language,  Dutch.  Circulation 
small. 

Soerabaiasch  Handelsblad,  Soerabaya. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch. 
No  statement  of  circulation  was  made.  It  is  estimated  that  about  5,000  copies 
are  published  daily.  It  is  the  leading  paper  of  east  Java  and  caters  to  the 
general  public  rather  than  to  the  governing  classes.  A  good  advertising 
medium. 

Nieuwe  Soerabaya  C  our  ant ,  Soerabaya. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch  ; 
claims  4,000  circulation.  Circulates  among  the  working  people  and  is  consid¬ 
ered  to  be  radical.  Not  a  desirable  medium  for  advertising  luxuries  or  articles 
of  high  per  unit  value. 

Soerabaiasch  Nieuwsblad ,  Soerabaya. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch.  No 
statement  of  circulation  made ;  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  1,200.  Not 
considered  of  importance  as  an  advertising  medium. 

Preanger  Bode,  Bandoeng. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch ;  claims  4,500 
circulation,  principally  in  Bandoeng  and  among  the  plantations.  This  is  the 
most  important  daily  in  the  Preanger  Regencies. 

Be  Bandoenger,  Bandoeng. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch.  Small  circula¬ 
tion  ;  local  only.  Readers  usually  take  a  coast  paper  also. 

Algemeen  Landbouweekblad  voor  Nederlandsch  Indie,  Bandoeng. — Published 
weekly;  language,  Dutch.  Circulates  among  the  planters  only. 

Java  Post,  Bandoeng. — Published  weekly;  language,  Dutch.  Small  circula¬ 
tion  and  of  minor  importance. 

Mataram,  Djokjakarta. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch ;  claims  circula¬ 
tion  of  1,100,  circulating  in  the  Residencies  of  Djokjakarta,  Soerakarta,  Kedoe, 
and  Banjoemas.  This  publication  is  of  value  for  advertising  to  residents  of 
Djokjakarta  and  the  immediate  vicinity. 

Jogja  Vooruit,  Djokjakarta. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch.  Publication 
small ;  of  little  consequence. 

Be  Nieuwe  Vorstenlanden,  Soerakarta. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch. 
No  statement  made  as  to  number  of  copies  published ;  probably  under  1,000. 
Circulation  possibly  local  only.  Not  an  important  medium. 

Other  Java  publications  comprise  the  following: 

Archipel  Post,  published  in  Dutch,  at  Buitenzorg,  twice  a  week;  Dutch  East 
Indian  Archipelago,  published  in  English,  at  Buitenzorg,  weekly ;  Jahn’s  Adver- 
tentieblad,  published  in  Dutch,  at  Malang,  twice  a  week;  Kedirische  Courant, 
published  in  Dutch,  at  Kediri,  daily ;  De  Boers  Aankondiger,  published  in 
Dutch,  at  Tegal,  weekly;  and  Sluyter’s  Monthly,  published  in  English,  at 
Batavia,  monthly. 

In  the  Outer  Possessions  the  principal  center  of  wealth  is  at 
Medan,  Sumatra,  where  the  following  papers  are  located : 

Sumatra  Post,  Medan. — Published  daily;  language,  Dutch.  No  statement  of 
the -number  of  copies  published  was  made;  from  1,000  to  1,500  would  be  a  fair 
estimate.  This  paper  is  published  in  the  midst  of  the  Sumatra  tobacco  coun¬ 
try  and  the  rich  rubber  and  tea  lands.  It  is  an  important  medium. 

Beli  Courant,  Medan. — Published  daily ;  language,  Dutch ;  claims  publication 
of  3,500  copies,  mostly  in  northern  Sumatra.  This  is  an  important  publication, 
probably  standing  above  the  Sumatra  Post  in  point  of  circulation.  They  are 
both  important  advertising  mediums. 


386  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

Other  mediums  in  the  Outer  Possessions  are  the  following : 

De  Padanger  and  Sumatra  Bode,  both  published  in  Dutch,  at  Padang,  daily ; 
Sabangsch  Nieuwsblad,  published  in  Dutch,  at  Sabang,  Sumatra,  twice  a  week ; 
Nieuwsblad  voor  Atjeh,  published  in  Dutch,  at  Koeta  Radja,  Sumatra,  twice  a 
week;  Makassarsche  Courant  and  Dagblad  Celebes,  both  published  in  Dutch, 

’  at  Macassar,  daily ;  Borneo’s  Advertentieblad,  published  in  Dutch,  at  Bandjer- 
masin,  Borneo,  twice  a  week;  and  Ambon  Yooruit,  published  in  Dutch,  at 
Amboina,  in  the  residency  of  the  same  name,  twice  a  week. 

The  following  publications  are  printed  in  Malay : 

Sin  Po,  Perniagaan,  and  Neratja,  dailies,  published  in  Batavia ;  Warna 
Warta  and  Djawa  Tengah,  dailies,  Semarang;  Pewarta  Soerabaia,  Oetoesan 
Hindia,  and  Thjioen  Thioe,  dailies,  Soerabaya ;  Kaoem  Moeda,  daily,  Bandoeng; 
Andalas,  daily,  Medan ;  Sinar  Sumatra  and  Oetoesan  Melajoe,  dailies,  Padang ; 
and  Sinar  Matahri,  daily,  Macassar. 

The  publishers  of  newspapers  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  have 
expressed  great  dissatisfaction  with  American  advertising  agencies, 
especially  with  regard  to  their  insistence  on  waiting  for  proofs  of 
publication  before  payment.  This  involves  a  wait  of  at  least  five 
months  before  the  publisher  can  get  his  money,  and  when  copies 
have  been  lost  in  the  mail,  as  often  happens  with  second-class  matter, 
the  payment  is  held  up  indefinitely.  Newspaper  managers  have 
stated  positively  that  they  will  not  take  orders  placed  through 
agencies. 

Printing  is  not  carefully  done,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  unread¬ 
able  impressions  from  good  electrotypes.  Publishers  have  little  diffi¬ 
culty  in  selling  all  the  space  available  and  are  correspondingly  inde¬ 
pendent. 

POSTER  ADVERTISING. 

There  are  no  billboards  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  but  spaces  on 
walls  and  fences  can  be  rented,  and  some  privately  owned  boards 
have  been  erected  at  places  where  traffic  is  congested.  The  heavy 
rains  make  poster  advertising  expensive,  as  the  replacements  have 
to  be  made  often  and  the  supervision  can  not  be  left  to  the  native. 
Poster  advertising  is  usually  done  in  Romanized  Malay,  Chinese, 
and  the  script  of  the  district  in  which  the  advertising  is  done.  Malay 
and  Chinese  are  usually  incorporated  in  the  main  body  of  the 
poster  and  the  other  languages  are  printed  on  a  separate  strip. 

Space  is  for  rent  inside  the  railway  stations,  and  it  is  there  that 
most  of  the  poster  advertising  is  done. 

Advertising  by  posters  is  becoming  popular  in  British  Malaya, 
and  some  very  effective  advertising  campaigns  are  being  carried  on. 
One  Australian  patent-medicine  company  carried  on  a  campaign 
with  success,  and  a  Canadian  company  that  has  been  in  the  field  for 
many  years  has  pioneered  this  branch  of  advertising  and  has  worked 
out  many  interesting  details.  .  ' 

NEWSPAPER  ADVERTISING. 

Ten  daily  newspapers  are  published  in  Singapore,  four  in  Penang, 
one  in  Ipoh,  and  one  in  Kuala  Lumpur.  The  following  is  a  list, 
with  sworn  publication  figures  for  the  close  of  1919 : 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


387 


Daily 

Singapore :  circulation. 

Straits  Times  (English) _  4,500 

Singapore  Free  Press  (English) _  1,500 

Malaya  Tribune  (English) _ 1,700 

Malaya  Tribune  (Malay) _  800 

Utusan  Malayu  (Malay) _  1,100 

Union  Times  (Chinese) _  1,650 

Chin  Nam  Poh  (Chinese) _  880 

Lat  Pau  (Chinese) _  650 

Nanyo  Nichinichi  Shimbun  (Japanese) _  2,400 

Nanyo  Oyobi  Nihonjin  (Japanese) _  842 

Penang : 

Penang  Gazette  (English) _  1,500 

Straits  Echo  (English) _  900 

Kwong  Wah  Yit  Poh  (Chinese) _  1,050 

Penang  Sin  Poe  (Chinese) _ : _  550 

Kuala  Lumpur:  The  Malaya  Mail  (English) _ —  (*) 

Ipoh:  The  Times  of  Malaya  (English) _  (*) 


Newspaper  advertising  ranks  first  among  the  advertising  media 
in  British  Malaya,  and  space  is  normally  very  much  in  demand.  It 
would  be  misleading  to  estimate  their  value  on  the  standards  applied 
to  American  circulations.  This  is  distinctly  a  class  circulation, 
every  reader  being  a  man  or  a  woman  of  considerable  purchasing 
capacity.  Except  for  the  advertising  to  the  coolie  class,  it  might  be 
said  that  the  newspaper  is  indispensable  to  a  well-balanced  cam¬ 
paign. 

The  two  Malay  newspapers  reach  the  official  Malay  class,  which  is 
possessed  of  much  money  and  spends  it  freely  for  western  manu¬ 
factures,  especially  for  house  furnishings,  jewelry,  and  automo¬ 
biles. 

The  Chinese  newspapers  are  very  important.  Much  of  the  tin  is 
mined  by  Chinese,  and  many  of  them  have  amassed  large  fortunes. 
The  Chinese  tin  miners,  plantation  owners,  and  merchants  have  been 
very  successful  in  their  operations  and  spend  their  money  freely 
for  anything  that  they  want. 

The  Japanese  newspapers  of  Singapore  reach  the  Japanese  busi¬ 
ness  men,  planters,  and  other  Japanese  residents. 

Prices  for  space  are  not  high  as  compared  with  papers  reaching  a 
class  of  a  similar  purchasing  capacity  in  the  United  States.  Good 
locations  in  the  leading  papers  are  difficult  to  get.  Business  man¬ 
agers  refuse  to  deal  with  advertising  agencies  and  generally  require 
cash  with  orders  from  abroad.  Advertisers  having  agents  in  Singa¬ 
pore  would  do  well  to  place  their  advertising  through  them,  as  they 
will  be  able  to  get  cooperation  from  the  publishers  that  could  not 
be  had  from  abroad. 

Castings  from  matrices  are  not  satisfactorily  done  by  the  news¬ 
papers,  and  some  of  them  refuse  to  bother  with  them.  Unless 
mounted  electrotypes  are  sent,  advertisers  from  abroad  should  not 
expect  much  in  the  way  of  make-up  or  general  typographical  ex¬ 
cellence. 

OTHER  ADVERTISING  MEDIA. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  weeklies,  with  one  monthly 
periodical,  published  in  British  Malaya,  all  in  the  English  language: 


1  Circulation  unknown. 
19878°— 23 - 26 


388  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Singapore :  Weekly  circulation. 

Federated  Malay  States  Railway  Timetable _ 5,000 

Singapore  Free  Press _  250 

Straits  Times - 1,  500 

St.  Andrew’s  Cathedral  Monthly  Message _ x350 

Penang : 

Penang  Gazette _ 200 

Straits  Echo _ < _  75 

Ipoh  :  Malayan  Tin  and  Rubber  Journal _  (*) 


The  advertising  value  of  these  periodicals  is  not  important,  as  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  circulation  is  among  ex-residents,  who 
keep  up  with  the  news  of  the  colony  through  these  media.  The  Tin 
and  Rubber  Journal  is  a  particularly  direct  medium  for  reaching 
the  planters  and  tin  miners,  who  have  much  to  say  in  deciding  the 
type  and  purchase  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  machinery  and  hard¬ 
ware  supplies. 

Direct  advertising. — A  large  number  of  trade  lists  have  been  pre¬ 
pared,  covering  most  of  the  industries  and  separate  lines  of  business 
in  the  Netherlands  Indies.  Besides  these  lists  there  are  various 
directories  and  Government  publications  that  could  be  used  with 
good  effect,  among  which  are  the  following : 

J.  H.  <Ie  Bussy’s  Handboek  yoor  Cultuur  en  Handelsondernemmingen  in 
Nederlandsch  Indie  (the  “Poor’s  Manual”  of  the  Netherlands  Indies). 

Adresboek  voor  de  Nederlandsch  Indie  Nijverheid,  listing  all  the  industries, 
showing  location,  controlling  companies,  directors,  management,  power  used, 
and  number  of  European  and  native  employees,  as  well  as  other  data  valuable 
in  advertising. 

Regeerings  Almanak  voor  Nederlandsch  Indie,  containing  the  official  list  of 
Government  employees. 

Gids  voor  den  Interlocalen  Dieust  op  Java  (telephone  directory  of  Java). 

Cinematograph  advertising . — In  the  Netherlands  Indies  moving 
pictures  are  projected  with  a  single  machine,  the  interval  needed 
for  changing  the  film  being  used  for  advertising.  Most  of  this  ad¬ 
vertising  is  purely  local  and  is  poorly  done.  The  moving-picture 
houses  usually  run  two  performances,  both  of  which  are  well  at¬ 
tended.  This  advertising,  if  well  done,  should  be  effective  as  an 
auxiliary  to  a  campaign  including  other  media. 

Street  car  advertising  is  poorly  handled  in  the  Netherlands  Indies, 
and  inside  car  advertising  is  not  favorably  regarded  by  local  ad¬ 
vertisers.  The  big  advertisers,  however,  use  signboards  running 
along  the  tops  of  the  cars  and  on  the  front  of  the  locomotives. 
There  are  no  means  of  advertising  with  the  regular  railroads,  but 
most  of  the  “  tram  lines  ”  will  sell  space.  Separate  arrangements 
must  be  made  with  each  line. 

Directories. — Two  directories  are  published  in  Singapore — the 
Singapore  and  Straits  Directory  and  the  Chinese  Commercial  Direc¬ 
tory.  Preferred  locations  in  these  directories  can  be  made  very  ef¬ 
fective  supplementary  media  in  a  broad  advertising  campaign. 

Mailing  lists  are  not  purchasable  in  the  subdivided  forms  known 
in  the  United  States,  but  in  the  Singapore  and  Straits  Directory, 
which  is  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 
there  are  some  valuable  lists  which  could  well  be  used  in  any  ad¬ 
vertising  campaign  directed  to  the  better  class  trade.  Following 
are  some  of  the  more  interesting  of  these  lists:  Ladies’  list;  official 


1  Monthly. 


2  Circulation  unknown. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


389 


lists;  alphabetical  lists;  mining  companies,  with  staffs,  etc.;  planta¬ 
tion  companies,  with  staffs,  etc. ;  lists  of  commercial  houses,  with 
staffs,  agencies,  etc. ;  and  church  organizations,  clubs,  commercial 
organizations,  etc. 

Hangers  and  other  shop  advertising . — Some  good  advertising  has 
been  done  along  these  lines  in  British  Malaya,  especially  for  the  sell¬ 
ing  of  cigarettes,  liquors,  and  milk  and  other  foodstuffs.  Consider¬ 
able  development  is  yet  to  be  done,  and  there  is  a  good  opportunity 
to  get  advertising  in  this  way,  but  it  must  be  in  very  close  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  selling  campaigns.  Calendars  are  effective  in  this 
country,  as  the  Chinese  traditions  lead  this  element  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  to  place  great  stress  on  dates.  Another  factor  that  makes  the 
calendar  particularly  important  is  the  necessity  in  daily  business  to 
harmonize  the  dates  of  the  Gregorian,  Chinese,  and  Mohammedan 
calendars.  There  is  an  opportunity  for  development  in  this  ad¬ 
vertising. 

Style  in  advertising . — Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  on  the 
necessity  for  conservative  statements  in  advertising.  Patronizing 
or  familiar  phrases  in  correspondence  or  general  advertising  are  out 
of  place  in  British  Malaya,  and  when  addressed  to  the  buyers  of  the 
middle  and  better  classes  will  result  in  an  adverse  reaction. 

GOVERNMENT  MONOPOLIES. 

The  following  extracts,  relating  to  pawnshops,  the  opium  monopoly, 
and  the  salt  monopoly,  are  from  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  Year¬ 
book  of  1920: 

PAWNSHOPS. 

To  overcome  the  great  disadvantages  connected  with  the  existing  pawnshop 
licenses,  which  went  hand  in  hand  with  usury,  the  Government  decided  in  1903, 
after  a  trial  period,  to  take  over  the  exploitation  of  the  pawnshops.  This  ex¬ 
ploitation  has  since  been  gradually  introduced  throughout  Java  and  Madoera, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  licenses  have  been  withdrawn. 

In  1917  this  measure  was  completed,  and  the  licensed  pawnshop  in  Java  is 
now  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  is  expected  that  in  1921  the  exploitation  of  Govern¬ 
ment  pawnshops  will  be  begun  in  the  Outer  Possessions. 

If  it  is  found  to  be  necessary,  the  number  of  these  establishments  in  Java  and 
Madoera  will  be  increased. 

Where  the  Government  exploitation  exists  it  is  forbidden  under  penalty  to 
give  loans  either  in  money  or  merchandise  in  smaller  amounts  than  100  florins 
against  the  receipt  of  a  pledge. 

The  turnover  of  this  exploitation  is  steadily  increasing,  especially  since,  dur¬ 
ing  the  course  of  1912,  the  valuation  of  the  pawns  was  revised,  and  the  article 
pledged  is  no  longer  calculated  according  to  its  intrinsic  but  according  to  its 
market  value,  whereby  higher  amounts  can  be  lent. 

After  a  certain  time  has  elapsed  the  unredeemed  pawns  are  sold  at  auction. 
If  a  profit  remains  after  the  money  advanced  plus  the  interest  [is  taken  out], 
this  is  kept  for  a  year  at  the  disposal  of  the  borrower. 

The  exploitation  shows  a  loss  on  loans  for  amounts  of  50  cents  and  less,  but 
outside  of  that  the  venture  seems  to  be  profitable.  The  following  are  some 
figures  with  relation  to  the  pawnshop  service : 


Year. 

Pawn¬ 

shops. 

Pawns 
brought  in. 

Loans  given. 

Pawns 

redeemed. 

Pawns  sold 
at  auction. 

1914 . 

Number. 

298 

338 

352 

Number. 
31,414,263 
40,451,428 
44, 816, 078 

Florins. 

66,852,018 

99,622,683 

116,904,358 

Number. 

25,986,497 

34,701,692 

38,841,662 

Number. 

3,440,038 

4,344,720 

4,452,089 

1917 . 

1918 . 

Note. — The  average  pawn  for  1914  was  2.12  florins;  that  of  1917,  2.46  florins;  and  1918,  2.61  florins. 


390 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


OPIUM. 

Before  September,  1894,  the  right  to  retail  opium  in  Java  and  Madoera  was 
leased  out.  This  license  system  gave  rise  to  many  abuses  and  to  encouraging 
the  use  of  opium,  for  which  reason,  on  the  aforesaid  date  and  by  way  of  a 
trial,  the  Government  began  in  the  Residency  of  Madoera  to  take  the  opium 
exploitation  into  its  own  hands  under  the  name  of  the  “  Opiumregie.”  In  1904 
this  monopoly  was  established  throughout  Java  and  Madoera. 

In  the  Outer  Possessions  the  sale  of  opium  was  in  some  districts  leased  out 
by  the  Government,  in  others  by  the  native  rulers,  in  still  others  only  an  import 
duty  was  levied,  and  here  and  there  the  importing  of  opium  was  forbidden, 
while  there  were  also  districts  where  the  sale  was  entirely  free  and  not  subject 
to  any  law. 

Since  1913  the  “  Opiumregie  ”  has  been  introduced  in  all  the  Outer  Posses¬ 
sions,  with  the  exception  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  Residency  of  Temate  and 
its  dependencies  (where  it  is  only  introduced  in  the  island  of  Ternate  and  a 
small  part  of  the  island  of  Bat j an)  and  in  the  divisions  southern  and  western 
New  Guinea  of  the  Residency  of  Amboina.  In  the  districts  here  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  monopoly  region,  however,  the  import  of  opium  is  forbidden. 

In  the  regions  of  the  “  Opiumregie  ”  the  import  and  the  sale  may  take  place 
only  through  the  Government. 

The  raw  opium  required  by  the  monopoly  is  bought  in  Bengal.  The 
“tjandoe”  (prepared  opium)  is  packed  in  tubes,  which  can  not  be  opened  with¬ 
out  being  damaged,  and  which  therefore  can  not  be  filled  with  other  opium 
and  passed  on  as  unopened  monopoly  tubes. 

The  sale  takes  place  through  officials,  who  receive  a  regular  monthly  salary. 
In  contrast  with  the  State  monopolies  elsewhere  the  “  Opiumregie  ”  in  Nether¬ 
lands  India  recognizes  no  intermediary  parties,  who  might  have  an  interest  in 
the  extension  of  the  sale.  This  tends  to  discourage  the  use  of  opium,  as  do 
still  other  measures  which  have  been  taken  to  limit  its  use  as  much  as  possible. 
To  name  all  these  would  take  too  much  space,  so  that  the  following  incom¬ 
plete  review  must  serve  the  purpose. 

In  the  first  place,  in  many  parts  of  Netherlands  India,  private  persons  are 
prohibited  from  having  in  their  possession  any  opium,  even  though  it  may 
come  through  the  monopoly ;  in  other  districts  the  possession  and  transport  of 
Government  opium  are  only  allowed  to  holders  of  a  personal  license ;  in  others 
it  is  allowed  to  certain  classes  of  the  people  without  permission,  but  otherwise 
prohibited  to  everyone  who  has  no  license.  In  several  districts  these  licenses 
may  not  be  given  to  the  native  population  nor  to  other  specified  groups  of 
people. 

Districts  where  such  restrictions  are  in  force  are  called  “  prohibited  areas.” 

Outside  the  prohibited  areas  the  possession  of  Government  opium  is  forbid¬ 
den  throughout  all  Netherlands  India  to  men  in  the  service  of  the  Royal  and 
the  Government  Navy  and  to  native  soldiers  of  the  land  forces ;  it  is  also  for¬ 
bidden  to  Government  officials. 

Furthermore,  it  is  permitted  to  Europeans  only  if  they  hold  a  special  license. 

Opium  may  not  be  sold  to  young  people  under  18  years  of  age,  while  trade 
in  Government  opium  is  everywhere  forbidden. 

Furthermore,  to  limit  the  use  in  most  of  the  residencies  of  Netherlands  India, 
the  price  at  which  the  Government  opium  is  sold  is  being  gradually  but  con¬ 
siderably  increased. 

Again,  a  considerable  decrease  has  been  effected  in  the  numbers  of  shops 
and  of  dens,  the  latter  being  places  where  the  public  is  given  opportunity  to 
use  opium.  These  dens  may  only  be  kept  by  persons  who  have  a  permit  from 
the  head  of  the  provincial  government,  while  their  exploitation  is  besides  sub¬ 
ject  to  certain  limiting  conditions. 

Also  with  respect  to  the  import,  the  possession,  the  sale,  and  the  export  of 
morphine,  cocaine,  eucaine,  and  other  surrogates  of  morphine,  various  pro¬ 
hibiting  regulations  are  in  force,  just  as  for  the  export  and  transport  of  opium. 

For  further  details  regarding  the  “  Opiumregie  ”  and  the  prohibition  regu¬ 
lations  for  opium,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  report  of  this  department 
for  the  year  1915,  which  contains  a  brief  history  of  the  monopoly  and  its 
restrictions. 

The  only  tjandoe  to  be  bought  is  that  prepared  from  Bengal  opium,  of  which 
in  1918  a  total  of  2,336,276  thails  (1  thail=38.6  grams)  was  sold,  meaning 
984,487  in  Java  and  Madoera  and  1,351,789  in  the  Outer  Bossessions. 


BntJSIKESS  FACTORS 

SALT  MONOPOLY. 


391 


With  a  few  exceptional  cases  the  manufacture  of  salt,  other  than  for  the 
needs  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Government  and  with  its  sanction,  has  for 
a  long  time  been  prohibited  in  Java  and  Madoera,  while  in  the  Outer  Pos¬ 
sessions,  until  recently,  it  was  made  for  the  most  part  without  restrictions. 

At  the  present  time,  also,  salt  manufacture  is  carried  on  free  in  a  number 
of  Provinces  in  the  Outer  Possessions,  but  only  in  a  primitive  way  by  the 
natives  for  their  own  or  for  local  use.  In  the  South  Celebes  salt  is  manu¬ 
factured  on  a  larger  scale  and  from  this  source  of  supply  is  distributed  to 
the  surrounding  islands. 

In  most  districts  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo  the  Government  has  established  a 
monopoly,  while  in  some  parts  of  Sumatra  the  import  is  free  but  the  manu¬ 
facture  is  prohibited.  In  these  parts  salt  is  imported,  chiefly  by  private 
parties,  from  Singapore,  Penang,  British  India,  and  Siam,  which  import  in 
1918  amounted  to  13,147  tons,  principally  destined  for  Sumatra  and  the  sur¬ 
rounding  islands. 

The  manufacture  by  the  Government  takes  place  on  the  island  of  Madoera, 
where  the  salt  is  converted  by  the  natives  by  evaporating  sea  water  in  pans, 
after  which  it  is  delivered  to  the  Government  at  a  fixed  price  of  10  florins 
per  kojang  (1,850  kilos). 

A  suitable  site  has  also  been  purchased  by  the  Government  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  the  manufacture  partly  into  its  own  hands.  The  conversion  of  this 
field  into  salt  land  was  partially  completed  in  1918,  at  which  time  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  began  to  manufacture  its  own  salt.  The  product  is  sold  in  block 
form.  These  blocks  are  made  in  two  factories  in  Madoera. 

The  transport  to  the  salt  markets  is  usually  done  by  the  Government.  The 
sale  is  carried  on  for  the  Government  by  European  and  native  salt  venders. 

Importation  of  salt  into  districts  over  which  the  Government  exercises  a 
monopoly  is  forbidden  unless  it  is  fine  fable  salt  or  required  for  the  preserva¬ 
tion  of  foodstuffs  and  packed  with  them. 

TAXATION. 

The  new  tax  regulations  of  March  18,  1921,  comprise  .the  fol¬ 
lowing  : 

(1)  An  increase  and  an  extension  of  the  existing  income  tax  and, 
in  connection  therewith,  the  discontinuance  of  the  war-profit  tax. 

(2)  The  levying  for  three  years  of  special  taxes  on  some  major 
plantation  enterprises,  as  on  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  rubber,  and 
cinchona  bark,  in  the  form  of  a  direct-profit  tax  for  the  four  first- 
named  enterprises  and  for  the  two  last-named  (including  an  equiva¬ 
lent  for  the  extracted  sulphate)  in  the  form  of  export  duties. 

(3)  A  single  levy  on  the  sugar  crop  of  1919  and  the  quinine  crop 
of  1918  and  1919. 

(4)  An  increase  and  an  extension  of  import  and  export  duties. 

(5)  An  increase  in  the  excises  on  domestic  spirits,  petroleum,  and 
matches. 

Income  taxes  (Ind.  Staatsblad  312). — The  income  taxes  specified 
by  the  law  of  January  1,  1908,  applied  before  January  1,  1920,  to 
Europeans  only  and  to  those  classified  with  them  (westerners),  as 
well  as  to  juridical  persons  falling  under  European  legislation.  Be¬ 
ginning  with  the  date  last  named,  taxes  have  been  made  uniform  or 
applicable  to  all,  that  is,  they  have  been  extended  to  apply  also  to 
non-European  groups  of  the  population,  as  natives  and  foreign 
orientals,  for  whom  on  that  date  were  discontinued  all  direct  levies 
on  incomes,  under  whatever  names,  formerly  applicable  to  them. 
This  income-tax  extension  includes  practically  the  whole  Dutch 


392  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Indies,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Government  districts,  where  objec¬ 
tions  of  a  practical  nature  make  their  application  temporarily  un¬ 
desirable. 

The  income  tax  is  payable  by  all  persons,  physical  and  juridical, 
who  live  or  are  established  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  or  who,  if  estab¬ 
lished  outside  the  Dutch  Indies,  carry  on  a  trade  or  conduct  an  enter¬ 
prise,  wholly  or  partially,  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  or  are  repre¬ 
sented  by  others  in  a  trade  or  an  enterprise,  or  who  are  participants 
in  the  profits  of  an  enterprise  established  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
as  a  firm,  or  company,  or  a  corporation. 

Individuals  are  subject  to  a  tax  on  their  income  derived  during  the 
last  preceding  calendar  year  if  this  income  was  120  florins  or  more 
according  to  a  progressive  scale  of  from  1  to  25  per  cent. 

The  income-tax  rates  on  annual  incomes  are  shown  in  the  following 
compilation : 


Tax  on  incomes  of —  Per  cent* 

600  florins  per  year _  1.  80 

1,000  florins  per  year _  1.  88 

6,000  florins  per  year _ _ _  3.18 

12,000  florins  per  year _ _ _  4.39 

25,000  florins  per  year _  6.  00 

50,000  florins  per  year _  8.  41 

100,000  florins  per  year _ 12. 17 

200,000  florins  per  year _ 17.  28 

500,000  florins  per  year..__ _ 21.  91 

1,000,000  florins  per  year _ 23.  46 


The  income  tax  for  juridical  persons  prior  to  January  1,  1920, 
was  as  follows: 

(11  A  levy  on  the  yearly  net  income  to  the  amount  of  4  per  cent. 

(2)  A  levy  of  8  per  cent  of  the  yearly  surplus  profit,  by  which  is 
understood  the  amount  which,  in  whatever  form,  is  paid  in  the  last 
preceding  calendar  year  to  shareholders  entitled  to  participate  in  the 
profits,  after  deduction  of  5  per  cent  on  the  payments  on  shares,  or 
certificates  of  partnership  actually  made  and  not  repaid. 

The  quotas  of  both  levies  have  been  increased,  beginning  with 
January  1,  1920,  to  6  per  cent  for  the  first  and  to  10  per  cent  for  the 
second,  while  the  tax-free  dividend  is  brought  from  5  per  cent  to 
8  per  cent. 

Figured  from  the  same  date,  there  has  been  added,  applicable 
to  juridical  persons,  a  third  basis  for  income  taxes,  viz,  the  tax 
on  extra  profits,  whereby  is  understood  that  part  of  the  annual  net 
profit  which,  after  deduction  of  the  6  per  cent  levy  on  incomes 
mentioned  above  under  (1),  amounts  to  more  than  the  one-tenth 
part  of  the  amount  of  the  paid-up  capital.  The  tax  levy  on  the 
extra  profit,  which  is  meant  to  take  the  place  of  the  war-profit  tax, 
is  6  per  cent,  increased  by  8  per  cent  of  part  of  above-mentioned 
income  over  and  above  one-fourth  of  the  paid-up  capital;  by  10 
per  cent  of  part  of  that  income  over  and  above  one-lialf  of  the  paid- 
up  capital;  and  by  12  per  cent  of  part  of  that  income  over  the  full 
amount  of  the  paid-up  capital. 

The  taxes  on  surplus  profits  and  on  extra  profits,  and  on  extra 
profits  of  juridical  persons  established  outside  the  Dutch  Indies 
but  operating  their  trade  or  enterprise  within  the  confines  of  the 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


393 


Dutch  Indies,  are  levied  on  that  part  of  the  surplus  or  extra  profits 
which  are  determined  by  the  relation  of  the  net  profits  in  the 
Indies  to  the  total  profits. 

Definition  of  corporation  capital. — Since  both  tax  levies  men¬ 
tioned  above  are  based  directly  upon  the  amount  of  the  joint  stock 
of  corporation,  it  is  necessary  to  carefully  define  this  capital. 

To  consider  and  to  keep  as  permanent  the  regulation  heretofore 
governing  the  surplus  profit,  which  regulation  defined  the  joint 
capital  of  a  corporation  as  being  the  total  amount  of  the  stock 
actually  paid  up  and  not  repaid,  would,  because  of  the  progressive 
character  of  the  extra-profit  tax,  lead  to  a  grave  injustice,  since,  as 
a  result  of  the  methods  of  financing  practiced  by  a  number  of  cor¬ 
porations  operating  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  the  amount  of  capital 
actually  in  use  is  considerably  larger  than  the  amount  of  the  capital 
stock  paid  for,  due  to  the  fact  that  in  many  instances  the  profits 
made  in  former  years  have  been  put  back,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
into  the  treasury  for  expansion  or  improvement  purposes. 

To  remedy  this,  a  regulation  has  been  adopted  whereby  for  the 
purpose  of  computing  the  income  tax — both  the  surplus  and  extra 
profit  tax — there  are  added  to  the  paid-up  capital  stock  of  corpora¬ 
tions  the  amounts  which  in  former  years  have  been  left  in  the  treas¬ 
ury  as  a  reserve  fund  or  which  have  been  written  off  and  which 
have  been  put  to  use  in  the  operation  of  the  enterprise. 

The  task  of  defining  the  capital  stock  of  a  corporation  which  is  to 
serve  as  a  basis  for  computing  the  tax  levies  on  both  the  surplus 
profits  and  the  extra  profits  will  be  left  in  the  hands  of  a  committee 
of  experts  in  which  the  interests  of  the  corporation  will  be  repre¬ 
sented.  Corporations  will  be  allowed,  for  a  period  of  one  year 
beginning  with  the  date  on  which  the  revised  income-tax  regulations 
go  into  effect,  to  show  their  capital  expansion  for  all  or  any  amounts 
which,  prior  to  January  1,  1920,  have  been  added  to  the  treasury  of 
the  corporation  from  the  profits  made,  but  not  thereafter. 

Holding  companies. — Concerning  holding  companies,  in  the  real 
meaning  of  the  word,  it  has  been  decided  that  the  dividends  which 
juridical  persons  receive  from  registered  shares  in  other  corporations 
will  count  for  only  one-half  in  the  tax  levy  on  the  net  income,  on 
the  extra  profits  or  on  both,  depending  upon  whether  the  subsidiary 
companies  have  been  assessed  for  the  year  for  which  the  dividends 
have  been  declared  on  the  same  basis  or  on  the  basis  of  both  incomes 
mentioned  above. 

Tariff  on  income  taxes  for  juridical  persons. — The  figures  below 
give  the  percentages  which  by  virtue  of  the  revised  income-tax  regu¬ 
lations  are  levied  upon  corporations.  It  has  been  presupposed  that 
the  profits  derived  from  operations  in  any  one  year  have  been  paid 
to  those  entitled  to  them  in  their  entirety,  so  that  the  given  percent¬ 
ages  for  the  levy  on  surplus  profits  are  figured  at  their  maximum 
amount,  which  may  surpass  considerably  the  surplus-profit  tax  actu¬ 
ally  levied. 


394  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


If  the  net  income  amounts  in  per  cent  of  the  capital 
stock  to — 

There  will  be  due  in  per  cent  of 
the  net  income— 

In  taxes 
upon  that 
income. 

In  taxes 
upon  extra 
profits. 

In  taxes 
upon 
surplus 
profits. 

Total 
per  cent. 

5 . . 

6. 00 

6.00 

10 . 

6.00 

1.40 

7. 40 

15 . 

6.00 

1.64 

3.90 

11.54 

20 . 

6.00 

2.64 

5. 14 

13.78 

25 . 

6.00 

3.24 

5.88 

15.12 

30 . 

6.00 

4. 49 

6.28 

16.77 

35 . 

6.00 

5. 73 

6.54 

18.27 

40 . 

6.00 

6.66 

6. 73 

19.39 

50 . 

6.00 

7. 96 

7.00 

20.96 

60 . 

6.00 

9. 77 

7.09 

22.86 

80 . 

6.00 

13.06 

7.09 

26.15 

100 . . 

6.00 

14.96 

7.10 

28.06 

150 . 

6.00 

20.77 

6.79 

33.56 

200 . 

6.00 

24. 04 

6.60 

36.64 

500 . 

6.00 

29.92 

6. 25 

42.17 

The  tax  on  extra  profits  of  juridical  persons  which  do  not  possess 
capital  paid  for  shares  or  certificates  of  membership  or  partnership, 
and  which  are  not  in  existence  for  some  specific  purpose  intended  for 
the  general  good,  is  fixed  at  6  per  cent  of  the  yearly  net  income. 

Adjustment  of  the  extra-profit  tax  with  relation  to  the  war-profit 
tax. — Since  the  tax  on  extra  profits  is  retroactive  to  January  1,  1920, 
and  is  levied  for  the  first  time  on  the  basis  of  the  extraordinary 
profits  made  in  1919,  which,  thanks  to  favorable  conditions,  have 
been  very  high,  it  would  follow  that  these  profits,  in  so  far  as  they 
must  be  marked  as  war  profits,  would  be  taxed  in  an  overlapping  or 
double  manner,  viz,  first  as  war-profit  tax  and  secondly  as  extra¬ 
profit  tax.  To  avoid  this,  all  juridical  persons  who  have  been  taxed 
for  1919  for  their  war  profits  will  be  allowed  to  deduct  the  amount 
of  the  levy  from  the  sum  for  which  they  will  be  taxed  on  the  extra 
profits  made  according  to  the  income-tax  regulations  of  1920,  while 
the  taxes  of  juridical  persons  whose  payment  of  war-profit  taxes  for 
1919  might  be  higher  than  the  levy  on  the  extra  profits  to  be  assessed 
against  them  for  1920  will  be  annulled. 

Taxation  of  foreign  underwriters. — Separate  mention  must  be 
made  of  those  who,  established  outside  the  Dutch  Indies,  sell  within 
the  borders  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  through  the  intermediary  of  resident 
representatives,  fire,  marine,  life,  or  other  insurance  policies. 

These  are  subject  to  taxation,  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  incomes  de¬ 
rived  from  life  insurance  policies,  on  a  profit  figured  at  5  per  cent, 
and  otherwise  on  a  profit  figured  at  10  per  cent  of  all  sums  derived 
by  way  of  premiums  or  capitals  collected,  during  the  preceding  cal¬ 
endar  year  from  the  insured  in  the  Dutch  Indies,  or  outside  the  terri¬ 
tory,  on  account  of  merchandise  risks  situated  therein. 

The  tax  which  thus  far,  for  each  total  sum  of  100  florins  of  the 
above-mentioned  profit,  amounted  to  4  florins  is  by  the  new  tax  regu¬ 
lations  brought  up  to  6  florins. 

SPECIAL  TAXES  ON  STAPLE  PRODUCTS. 


Because  of  the  considerable  increase  in  the  quotas  of  the  income 
tax,  it  is  of  prime  importance,  both  for  the  exchequer  and  for  those 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


395 


who  are  subject  to  taxation^  that  the  assessment  in  this  taxation  be 
figured  as  carefully  as  possible.  For  this  purpose  there  is  required 
an  extensive  and  expert  personnel,  which  must  necessarily  be  gath¬ 
ered  and  organized  slowly  and  carefully.  These  and  other  circum¬ 
stances,  coupled  with  the  consideration  that,  in  connection  also  with 
the  above-mentioned  regulation  affecting  the  working  capital  of  cor¬ 
porations,  there  is  no  absolute  certainty  that  the  treasury  will  eventu¬ 
ally  receive  that  part  of  the  extraordinary  profits  to  w*hich  it  is  en¬ 
titled,  have  led  to  the  plan  whereby,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
profits  earned  by  the  large  agricultural  estates,  a  corrective  of  the 
extra-profit  tax  has  been  decided  on,  which  will  take  the  form  of  a 
direct  tax  on  the  profits  earned  from  the  growing  of  sugar,  coffee,  tea, 
and  tobacco  and  of  an  indirect  tax  (in  the  nature  of  an  export  duty) 
on  the  profits  earned  from  the  cultivation  of  rubber,  cinchona  bark, 
and  quinine. 

Sugar  tax  (Ind.  Staatsblad  299,  p.  714) . — The  sugar  tax  is  paid  for 
each  plantation  separately,  according  to  the  number  of  piculs  pro¬ 
duced  (1  picul=136  pounds),  converted  for  calculation  to  a  polariza¬ 
tion  of  100  per  cent.  For  this  purpose  a  polarization  value  of  the 
various  kinds  is  fixed  by  decree  of  the  Governor  General. 


Difference  between  proceeds  and  cost 
price  in  per  cent  of  the  cost  price. 

Tax  in  per 
cent  of  that 
difference. 

Difference  between  proceeds  and  cost 
price  in  per  cent  of  the  cost  price. 

Tax  in  per 
cent  of  that 
difference. 

Below  10 . 

Nil. 

80 . 

13.03 

10 .  . 

1.50 

85 . 

13. 75 

15 . ; . 

2.00 

90 . 

14.44 

20 . 

2. 50 

95 . 

15. 10 

25 . 

3.00 

100 . 

15.72 

30 . . . 

4.00 

105 . 

16.30 

35 . 

5.00 

no . 

16.85 

40 .  . 

6.00 

115 . 

17.37 

45 . 

7.00 

120 . 

17.85 

50 . 

7. 96 

125 . 

18.29 

55 . 

8.89 

130 . 

18. 70 

60 . 

9. 79 

135 . 

19.08 

65 . 

10. 65 

140 . 

19.42 

70 . 

11.48 

145 . 

19.73 

75 . 

12.27 

150  or  more . 

20.00 

This  works  out  in  practice  for  a  supposed  case  of  an  average  cost 
price  of,  say,  10  florins  per  picul  crystal,  converted  to  100  per  cent 
polarization,  as  follows: 


Profit  per  picul  crystal  in  florins. 

♦ 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
florin  cents. 

Profit  per  picul  crystal  in  florins. 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
florin  cents. 

Below  1.00 . 

Nil. 

7.50 . 

92 

1.00 . 

1 

8.00 . 

104 

1.25.. . 

2 

8.50 . 

116 

1.50 . 

3 

9.00 . 

129 

1.75 . 

4 

9.50 . 

143 

2.00 . 

5 

10.00 . 

157 

2.50. 

8 

10.50.  . 

171 

3.00 . 

12 

11.00 . 

185 

3.50 . 

18 

11.50 . 

199 

4.00 . < . 

24 

12.00 . 

213 

4.50 . 

31 

12.  50 . 

228 

5.00 . 

39 

13.00 . 

244 

5.50 . 

49 

13.50 . 

258 

6.00 . 

59 

14.00 . 

272 

6.50 . 

69 

14.50 . 

286 

7.00 . 

80 

15.00 . 

300 

396  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


For  each  full  amount  of  0.25  florin  cent,  by  which  the  profit  per 
picul  exceeds  15  florins,  the  tax  levied  on  this  profit  is  increased  by 
5  florin  cents. 

Tobacco  (Ind.  Staatsblad  295,  296). — For  tobacco,  as  also  for  tea, 
the  cost  price  of  different  enterprises  varies  considerably.  It  is 
therefore  not  sufficient  in  connection  with  these  products  to  take  the 
difference  between  the  actual  cost  price  and  the  actual  proceeds  as  a 
measure  for  determining  the  tax  rate.  It  is  easily  seen  that  it  makes 
a  great  difference  whether  a  surplus  of,  say,  10  florin  cents  per  one- 
half  kilo  is  obtained  on  a  cost  price  of  from  25  to  30  florin  cents  per 
kilo,  as  has  been  the  case  with  many  enterprises  in  middle  Java  up 
to  a  few  years  ago,  or  the  same  surplus  on  a  cost  price  of  1  florin  or 
more  per  one-half  kilo,  as  has  been  the  case  with  the  tobacco  planta¬ 
tions  in  normal  times.  The  taxes  on  equal  profits  must,  therefore, 
necessarily  be  higher  in  proportion  to  the  lower  cost  price  against 
which  the  profits  have  been  earned. 

An  abstract  of  the  tariff  is  as  follows : 


Tax  in  florin  cents  per  100  kilos 
against  a  cost  price  per  one-half 
kilo  of— 


Profits  in  cents  per  one-half  kilo. 

More  than 
but  not 
more  than 
42J  cents. 

More  than 
57§  but  not 
more  than 
62J  cents. 

More  than 
77£  but  not 
more  than 
82 £  cents. 

Less  than  4  cents . 

Nil. 

Nil. 

Nil. 

4  cents  and  more  but  less  than  6  cents . 

12 

Nil. 

Nil. 

6  cents  and  more  but  less  than  8  cents . 

24 

18 

Nil. 

8  cents  and  more  but  less  than  10  cents . 

40 

29 

24 

20  cents  and  more  but  less  than  22  cents . 

318 

187 

120 

40  cents  and  more  but  less  than  42  cents . 

1, 256 
2,400 
3,200 
4,000 
4,800 
80 

875 

637 

60  cents  and  more  but  less  than  62  cents . 

1,  884 

1, 472 

80  cents  and  more  but  less  than  82  cents . 

3',  033 
4,000 

2,512 

3,657 

4,800 

100  cents  and  more  but  less  than  102  cents . 

120  cents  and  more  but  less  than  122  cents . 

4,800 

80 

For  each  further  increase  of  profits  by  2  cents  the  tax  is  increased. . . . 

80 

Tea  tax  (Ind.  Staatsblad  298,  art.  4). — For  this  tax  also  the  rates 
for  the  various  cost  prices  must  necessarily  differ.  Consequently 
four  separate  profit  scales  have  been  established  for  cost  prices,  viz, 
below  25  cents,  from  25  to  35  cents,  from  35  to  45  cents,  and  above 
45  cents  per  one-half  kilo,  of  which  we  abstract : 


Tax  in  cents  per  100  kilos  against  an  average 
cost  price  per  one-half  kilo  of— 


Profits  in  cents  per  one-half  kilo. 

Not  more 
than  25 
cents  (av¬ 
erage 

20  cents). 

More  than 
25  cents 
and  not 
more  than 
35  cents. 

More  than 
35  cents 
and  not 
more  than 
45  cents. 

More  than 
45  cents 
(average 

50  cents). 

More  than  2  cents . 

Nil. 

Nil. 

Nil. 

Nil. 

2  cents  and  more  but  less  than  3  cents . 

6 

Nil. 

Nil. 

Nil. 

5  cents  and  more  but  less  than  6  cents . 

30 

22 

17 

15 

10  cents  and  more  but  less  than  12  cents . 

159 

93 

60 

50 

20  cents  and  more  but  less  than  22  cents . 

628 

437 

318 

240 

30  cents  and  more  but  less  than  32  cents . 

1,200 

942 

736 

587 

40  cents  and  more  but  less  than  42  cents . 

1, 600 

1, 517 

1, 256 

1,042 

50  cents  and  more  but  less  than  52  cents . 

2,000 

2,000 

1,829 

1,570 

76  cents  and  more  but  less  than  78  cents . 

For  each  further  increase  of  profits  by  2  cents  the  tax 

3,040 

3,040 

3,040 

3,040 

increases  by . 

80 

80 

80 

80 

BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


397 


Coffee  tax  (Ind.  Staatsblad  297). — As  the  growing  of  coffee  is 
frequently  done  in  connection  with  various  other  enterprises  and, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  in  conjunction  with  other  products  on  the 
same  plantation,  it  is  not  possible  to  proceed,  for  the  purpose  of 
fixing  the  tax  rate  on  coffee,  from  the  difference  between  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  product  and  the  real  average  production  costs  run 
up  by  each  enterprise. 

To  determine,  therefore,  the  average  cost  price  would  not  only 
be  extremely  difficult  but  also,  in  most  cases,  very  arbitrary.  For 
that  reason  it  was  necessery  to  proceed  for  the  purpose  of  this 
taxation  from  the  same  cost  price  of  all  undertakings,  viz,  35  florins 
per  picul  for  Java  and  Liberia  coffee  and  20  florins  per  picul  for 
Robust  a  coffee.  As  against  the  above-mentioned  production  taxes, 
whose  levy  commences  when  the  proceeds  exceed  the  production 
costs  by  10  per  cent,  the  tax  on  coffee  will  not  go  into  effect  until 
the  proceeds  exceed  the  adopted  cost  price  by  20  per  cent'. 

The  special  tariff  for  Java  and  Liberia  coffee  tax  is  in  abstract 
fixed  as  follows: 


Price  per  picul  in  florins. 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
cents. 

Price  per  picul  in  florins. 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
cents. 

Below  42 . 

Nil. 

55 . : . 

185 

42 . 

17 

574 . 

237 

424 . 

19 

607 . 

292 

43! . 

22 

624 . 

352 

434 . 

25 

65! . 

415 

44 . 

28 

674 . 

480 

444 . 

32 

70! . 

549 

45 . 

37 

75 . 

689 

474 . 

64 

80 . 

837 

50 . 

99 

874 . 

1,050 

524 . 

139 

For  each  full  amount  of  50  cents,  whereby  the  profit  exceeds  87-J 
florins,  the  tax  per  picul  is  increased  by  10  cents. 

Following  is  the  special  tariff  for  Robusta  coffee  tax: 


Price  per  picul  in  florins. 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
cents. 

Price  per  picul  in  florins. 

Tax  per 
picul  in 
cents. 

Below  24 . 

Nil. 

32 . 

117 

24 . 

10 

34 . 

160 

244 . 

12 

36 . 

20S 

25! . . 

15 

38 . 

260 

26 . 

24 

40 . 

314 

27 . 

35 

424 . 

384 

28 . 

48 

45! . . 

456 

29 . 

63 

474 . 

530 

30 . 

79 

50! . 

600 

For  each  full  amount  of  50  cents,  whereby  the  profit  exceeds  50 
florins  per  picul,  the  tax  is  increased  by  10  cents. 


398  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 

EXPORT  DUTIES. 

The  duty  on  exports  of  rubber  is  as  follows : 


Per  cent 

Rubber,  at  a  market  price  per  one-half  kilo  of —  ad  valorem. 

82^  cents  or  less _  Nil. 

More  than  821  cents  but  less  than  90  cents _  0.  25 

90  cents  or  more  but  less  than  1  florin _  .  50 

1.00  florin  or  more  but  less  than  1.10  florins _  1.  00 

1.10  florins  or  more  but  less  than  1.20  florins _  2.  00 

1.20  florins  or  more  but  less  than  1.30  florins _  3.  00 

1.30  florins  or  more  but  less  than  1.40  florins _  4.  00 

1.40  florins  or  more  but  less  than  1.50  florins _  5.  00 

1.50  florins  or  more _  7.  00 


From  time  to  time,  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  tax  levy,  the  aver¬ 
age  market  price  will  be  officially  determined,  this  price  to  be  based 
on  the  actual  prices  prevailing  for  certain  periods. 

Cinchona  bark. — The  export  duty  on  cinchona  bark  per  1  kilo  of 
sulphate  in  the  bark  is  as  follows :  - 


Less  than  5  cents 

5  cents . 

5£  cents . 

6  cents . . 

6£  cents . 

7  cents . . 

1\  cents . 

8  cents . 

8£  cents . . 

9  cents . 

9£  cents . 

10  cents . 

11  cents . 

12  cents . . 

13  cents . . 

14  cents . . 

15  cents . 

16  cents . 


At  a  unit  price  of— 


For  manu- 

For  phar- 

facturers’ 

maceutical 

bark. 

bark. 

Florins. 

Florins. 

Nil. 

Nil. 

0.02 

0.03 

.05 

.08 

.14 

.21 

.28 

.41 

.45 

.67 

.65 

.97 

.89 

1.31 

1.14 

1.69 

1.40 

2.09 

1.70 

2.53 

2.00 

2.98 

2.57 

3.83 

2.99 

4.47 

3.39 

5.07 

3.79 

5.67 

4.19 

6.27 

4.59 

6.87 

Quinine,  sulphate,  and  alkaloids  are  calculated  in  the  same  propor¬ 
tion  of  sulphate  as  if  still  contained  in  the  bark. 

Temporary  levy  of  special  profit  taxes. — In  connection  with  the 
special'levy  on  the  above-named  large  agricultural  enterprises  in  so 
far  as  it  is  in  the  nature  of  a  corrective  for  the  extra-profit  tax, 
which,  it  is  expected,  will  be  generally  and  exclusively  in  effect  in 
1923  for  the  extraordinary  profits  derived  from  these  enterprises 
as  well,  the  production  tax  will  be  imposed  on  the  crops  of  1920, 
1921,  and  1922,  excepting  the  tax  on  tobacco,  which  will  be  levied  on 
the  crops  of  1919,  1920,  and  1921,  because  about  one  year  elapses 
between  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  and  the  sale  of  the  tobacco. 

The  export  duties  on  rubber  and  quinine  will  be  levied  for  a  period 
of  three  years,  figured  from  the  date  on  which  they  go  into  effect. 

Adjustment  of  the  production  tax  with  the  extra-profit  tax. — When 
calculating  the  plantation  taxes  it  is  permitted  to  include  in  the  cost 
of  production  the  amounts  payable  according  to  the  law  governing 
the  income  and  surplus-profit  tax. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


399 


EXTENSION  AND  INCREASE  OF  IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  DUTIES. 

In  respect  of  these  duties  no  change  has  been  made  in  the  princi¬ 
ples  which  form  the  basis  of  the  existing  customs  laws;  in  other 
words,  in  the  matter  of  imposing  import  or  export  duties  no  distinc¬ 
tion  is  made  between  the  countries  of  origin  or  destination  of  goods 
nor  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  flag  under  which  the  goods  are  im¬ 
ported  or  exported.  The  law,  therefore,  knows  neither  differential 
nor  preferential  tariff ;  the  East  Indian  tariff  is  a  fiscal  tariff,  and  is 
in  no  wise  connected  with  or  for  the  purpose  of  protection  of  na¬ 
tional  products.  Duties  on  goods  in  transit  do  not  exist. 

In  framing  the  new  import  tariff  regulations  the  following  prin¬ 
ciples  have  been  considered: 

(1)  Manufactured  goods  only  and  horses  and  cattle  have  been 
made  subject  to  import  duties  or  increased  import  duties. 

(2)  The  ad  valorem  duties  have  been  placed  not  higher  than  12 
per  cent,  the  highest  ad  valorem  duty  mentioned  in  the  tariff  law. 

(3)  In  order  to  conserve,  as  much  as  possible,  the  interrelations 
between  the  existing  duty  percentages,  duties  of  10  per  cent  have 
been  increased  to  12  per  cent,  and  duties  of  6  per  cent,  with  few 
exceptions,  to  10  per  cent.  Further,  the  only  duty  of  8  per  cent  (on 
wet  paints)  has  been  brought  up  to  12  per  cent. 

(4)  Those  articles  which  formerly  were  not  subject  to  customs 
duties,  but  which  are  now  taxed,  have  been  assessed  for  an  ad  valorem 
duty  of  6  per  cent,  the  lowest  duty  mentioned  in  the  new  tariff  law. 

(5)  The  increased  specific  duties,  reduced  to  ad  valorem  duties, 
mean,  for  most  of  the  goods  concerned,  an  import  duty  of  more  than 
12  per  cent  ad  valorem ;  but  one  must  consider  that  those  articles  are 
all  luxury  articles  and  that  the  increase  has  been  decided  on  for  the 
purpose  of  creating  conformity  between  the  tax  and  the  present  value 
of  such  goods. 

Export  duties  have  been  extended  as  follows : 

(1)  Temporarily,  viz,  for  a  period  of  three  years,  as  far  as  con¬ 
cerns  rubber,  cinchona  bark,  and  quinine. 

(2)  For  copra  and  pepper,  which  are  subject  to  a  duty  levied  per 
100  kilos  and  for  the  sum  of  8  per  cent  of  the  difference  between  the 
average  market  price  and  the  average  cost  price  increased  by  10  per 
cent.  The  average  market  and  cost  price  will  be  determined  from 
time  to  time  by  the  Government. 

(3)  Coconut  oil,  whose  export  duties  are  figured  on  a  quantity 
basis  of  100  liters  and  are  equal  to  the  export  duties  on  125  kilos 
copra. 

The  existing  export  duties  on  petroleum  and  petroleum  products 
are  increased  as  follows: 

(a)  Petroleum  (kerosene)  and  all  other  by-products  not  included 
under  (b),  from  3  florins  to  7.50  florins  per  ton. 

(b)  Liquid  fuel,  residue,  solar  oil,  filter  press,  lubricating  oil, 
fat,  batching  oil,  pitch,  and  wax  oil,  from  0.60  florin  to  1.50  florins 
per  ton. 

The  above  tariff  law  went  into  effect  on  May  18,  1921,  except  so 
far  as  concerns  the  new  export  duties  on  rubber,  copra,  coconut  oil, 
pepper,  cinchona  bark,  and  quinine,  which  became  effective  on  Au¬ 
gust  16,  1921. 


400  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Increase  of  excises. — The  excise  (and  in  connection  therewith  the 
import  duty)  on  spirits,  heretofore  75  florins  per  100  liters  of  50 
per  cent  strength,  has  been  increased  to  150  florins;  the  excise  on 
petroleum  and  all  other  products  included  in  such,  as  per  existing 
regulations,  heretofore  2.50  florins  per  100  liters,  has  been  increased 
to  3.50  florins  for  kerosene  and  to  7.50  florins  for  benzine,  gasoline, 
and  all  other  petroleum  distillates  which  are  more  volatile  than 
petroleum,  while  the  excise  tax  on  matches  is  doubled,  and  therefore 
brought  up  to  1.40  florins  per  gross  boxes  of  75  matches  or  less  per 
box. 

NEW  STAMP  ACT. 

The  following  pertains  to  the  provisions  of  the  new  stamp  act, 
published  in  Het  Nieuws  van  den  Dag  of  October  22,  1921 : 

A.  TARIFF  OF  THE  STAMP  TAX  FOR  RECEIPTS  AND  COMMERCIAL  PAPER. 

(1)  For  receipts  and  copies  thereof  above  10  florins  the  stamp  tax  amounts 
to  0.15  florin.  Receipts  of  10  florins  and  less  are  also  subject  to  this  tax  if 
the  payment  is  made  on  account  of  a  larger  sum. 

Receipts  for  rent  agreements  and  agreements  for  salaries  of  10  florins  or 
less  are  free  of  tax. 

(2)  Certificates  of  membership  and  such  are  subject  to  0.15  florin  if  the 
certificate  is  given  upon  payment  of  a  contribution  of  more  than  10  florins. 

(3)  All  certificates  of  crediting  in  account  current  or  deposit  account  (with 
the  exception  of  the  crediting  by  means  of  indorsement)  and  all  certificates 
of  premium  or  receipt  of  money  (including  foreign  moneys,  checks,  money 
orders,  coupons,  etc.)  are  subject  to  0.15  florin. 

(4)  Balance  slip  of  a  closed  account  current,  also  the  copies  of  such  account 
current,  are  subject  to  0.15  florin. 

(5)  For  deeds  of  money  loans  and  credit  agreements,  made  at  such  ap¬ 
pointed  philanthropical  credit  institution  or  popular  credit  institution  whose 
credit  operations  extend  to  one  native  community,  0.15  florin  is  due,  provided 
they  do  not  concern  any  higher  amount  than  300  florins. 

If  they  concern  amounts  of  10  florins  or  less,  then  they  are  free  of  tax. 

(6)  Short  drafts,  assignments,  checks,  and  other  commercial  paper,  under 
which  is  to  be  understood  all  commercial  paper  payable  at  sight  or  to  bearer 
or,  at  the  latest,  three  days  after  sight  or  at  eight  days  after  the  date  of  issue, 
are  subject  to  0.15  florin. 

(7)  Long  drafts,  acceptances,  assignment,  and  other  commercial  paper  are 
subject  to  a  proportional  tax  of  one-half  per  cent. 

Duplicates  of  long  drafts  are  free  of  tax  provided  they  are  furnished  with 
the  declaration  “The  proportional  tax  has  been  paid  on  the  *  *  *  (first 

or  original)  draft,”  which  declaration  must  precede  the  drawer’s  signature  (on 
foreign  drafts,  that  of  the  acceptor). 

On  foreign  drafts  the  stamp  tax  can  be  paid  on  either  one  of  the  copies,  no 
matter  which. 

All  short  and  long  drafts  and  other  commercial  paper  made  up  abroad  must 
be  stamped  here  in  this  country  before  they  are  offered,  accepted,  viseed,  in¬ 
dorsed,  signed  for  aval,  paid,  receipted,  or  before  protest  of  nonacceptance  or 
nonpayment  is  made. 

This  stamping  can  be  done  at  the  post  office;  the  stamping  can  also  be  done 
by  signing  across  the  bill  stamp  at  the  time  of  the  acceptance,  indorsement,  or 
receipt. 

Manner  of  paying  the  tax. — The  tax  can  be  paid  by  the  use  of  stamped  paper 
or  bill  stamps. 

Use  of  stamped  paper  and  bill  stamps  together  and  use  of  more  than  one  bill 
stamp  are  permitted. 

Upon  the  use  of  a  bill  stamp  the  signer  must  place  his  signature  or  stamped 
signature  across  the  bill  stamp.  Upon  the  use  of  additional  bill  stamps  the 
signature  must  be  placed  across  all  the  bill  stamps  together. 

The  signature  may  occur  but  once  in  the  document. 

Each  bill  stamp  must  be  dated. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


401 


The  receipts,  the  certificates  of  crediting,  premium  or  receipt  of  money, 
certificates  of  membership,  and  balance  slips  are  subject  to  taxation,  even  if 
they  have  not  been  signed. 

For  the  time  being,  bill  stamps  of  0.05  florin  can  be  obtained  in  order  to 
give  holders  of  receipt  forms,  stamped  with  10  cents,  the  opportunity  of  con¬ 
tinuing  the  use  of  those  forms.  These  forms,  however,  can  be  stamped  again 
on  August  1,  1922,  at  the  office  of  the  Controller  of  Post  and  Stamps  by  means 
of  the  post  offices. 

B.  TARIFF  OF  THE  RENT  STAMP. 

The  tax  amounts  to  1  per  cent  of  the  rent  of  the  whole  lease  term  taken 
together. 

The  tax  can  be  paid  by  the  use  of  stamped  paper,  specially  stamped  paper 
or  bill  stamps,  distributed  by  the  Government. 

Use  of  stamped  paper  and  bill  stamps  together  and  use  of  more  than  one  bill 
stamp  are  permitted. 

Tenant  or  lessor,  who  puts  down  his  signature  first,  must  sign  across  the  bill 
stamp.  By  using  additional  bill  stamps  the  signature  must  be  put  across  all 
the  bill  stamps  together. 

Each  bill  stamp  must  be  dated. 

The  term  of  years  at  the  option  of  the  tenant  or  the  lessor  is  taken  into 
account. 

In  case  of  rent  to  the  time  it  is  called  in,  and  in  case  of  rent  for  the  lifetime 
of  the  lessor,  the  tax  is  calculated  over  10  rent  years. 

In  case  of  rent  for  an  indefinite  term,  the  tax  is  calculated  over  20  rent 
years. 

In  case  of  rent  for  a  certain  number  of  years  and  further  on  till  it  is  called 
in,  the  tax  is  calculated  over  that  fixed  number  of  years  plus  10. 

In  case  of  rent  for  a  certain  number  of  years  after  the  death  of  the  lessor,  the 
tax  is  calculated  over  that  number  of  years  plus  10.  For  example : 

Rent  for  five  years  continuous  if  not  called  in,  the  tax  is  calculated  over  15 
years.  If  the  rent  per  month  is  100  florins,  then  there  is  due — 

15X12X100  florins=18,000  florins  at  1  per  cent=180  florins. 

If  the  tenant  takes  charges  for  his  account  which,  without  expressed  agree¬ 
ment,  do  not  rest  with  him  (for  example,  the  payment  of  the  ground  tax  of 
the  hired  allotment  of  land),  then  those  charges  must  be  estimated  and  the 
amount  multiplied  by  the  number  of  rent  years  added  to  the  rent  price. 

The  duplicates  of  private  rent  contracts  are  free  of  tax,  provided  both  the 
copies  of  the  contract  are  shown  to  the  post  office  within  three  months  (at 
the  latest,  within  a  month  after  the  beginning  of  the  rent). 

Contracts  drawn  up  abroad,  for  real  estate  situated  in  this  country,  must, 
under  penalty  of  loss  of  proof,  be  stamped  again  at  the  post  office  within  four 
months  after  the  drawing  up. 

C.  TARIFF  OF  THE  COMMERCIAL  STAMP  TAX. 

The  tax  amounts  to  1  per  cent  for  the  buyer  and  1  per  cent  for  the  seller. 

In  the  stockbrokers’  business,  all  brokers’  bills  of  purchase  or  sale  delivered 
by  brokers,  commissioners,  banks,  and  other  persons  whose  ordinary  business 
is  the  stock  business.  Brokers’  bills  of  claims  are  not  exempted  from  taxation. 

In  the  produce  business  the  brokers’  letters  are  subject  to  taxation  if  they 
concern  the  purchase  and  sale  to  an  amount  of  4,000  florins  or  more  of  one  of 
the  following  products:  Boengkil,  cacao,  copra,  damar,  djarak  stones,  mace, 
groundnuts,  hides  and  skins,  indigo,  kapok  and  kapok  stones,  cotton,  coffee, 
nutmeg,  vegetable  oils,  oil  cakes,  pepper,  pinang  nuts,  rattan,  rubber,  rice, 
sugar,  tobacco,  and  dried  tapioca,  tea,  tin,  and  fibers,  for  amounts  of  4,000 
florins  and  more. 

All  purchases  or  sales  of  one  and  the  same  products  between  the  same  per¬ 
sons  done  within  a  period  of  14  days  are  added  together  for  the  purposes  of 
taxation,  unless  different  brokers  have  rendered  their  intermediary  services. 

The  bills  and  letters  sent  abroad  are  also  subject  to  this  taxation. 


402 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


Information  concerning  the  obligations  of  brokers,  commissioners, 
traders,  and  private  people  is  given  in  the  following  paragraphs : 

A.  IN  THE  STOCK  BUSINESS. 

Every  broker,  commissioner,  or  other  person  whose  ordinary  profession  is  the 
business  in  stocks  or  issuing  of  stocks  is  obliged  to  deliver  a  stamped  broker’s 
bill  for  each  purchase  or  sale  within  three  days. 

The  brokers’  bills  exchanged  between  brokers,  commissioners,  banks,  and 
other  persons  whose  ordinary  profession  is  the  business  in  stocks  are  exempted 
from  taxation. 

In  case  of  purchase  or  sale  on  foreign  exchange,  the  bill  must  be  delivered 
within  three  months. 

The  broker’s  bill  must  be  registered  in  a  register,  verified  in  the  name  of 
the  Government,  of  which  the  pages  are  numbered. 

B.  IN  THE  PKODUCE  BUSINESS. 

Each  broker  is  obliged  to  deliver  the  broker’s  note  to  purchaser  and  seller 
within  14  days  after  the  contracting  of  a  purchase  and  sale  for  4,000  florins 
and  more. 

If  two  brokers  residing  in  this  country  are  concerned  with  the  purchase  and 
sale,  each  of  them  is  obliged  to  deliver  to  his  principal  a  broker’s  note  con¬ 
cerning  that  matter. 

If  the  purchase  and  sale  are  achieved  without  the  good  offices  of  a  broker, 
purchaser  and  seller  both  are  obliged  to  confirm  the  agreement  in  a  stamped 
letter  or  note  within  14  days  to  the  other  party,  or  to  state  the  agreement 
in  a  private  act  made  in  duplicate,  or  by  a  notarial  act. 

Exemptions  are : 

(1)  The  documents  sent  to  the  producer  for  the  product  sold  for  or  by  him. 

(2)  Duplicates  and  other  documents  which  have  been  drawn  up  after  a 
stamped  broker’s  note  or  bill  has  been  delivered. 

Brokers  and  traders  whose  ordinary  profession  is  the  produce  business  must 
register  the  brokers’  notes,  bills,  and  deeds  in  a  register  of  which  the  pages 
are  numbered  and  verified  in  the  name  of  the  Government. 

The  right  half  of  the  commercial  stamp  must  be  pasted  on  the  brokers’ 
notes  and  bills,  the  left  half  in  the  register. 

The  verification  will  be  done  by  the  Inspector  of  Finances,  or,  in  residencies 
where  there  is  no  Inspector  of  Finances,  by  the  resident. 

Both  halves  of  the  commercial  stamp  must  be  dated.  However,  the  stamp 
need  not  be  signed. 

C.  INSURANCE  POLICY  STAMPS. 

The  insurance  policies  are  subject  to  a  special  tariff. 

Policies  drawn  up  abroad  must  be  stamped  before  they  are  given  out  here 
in  this  country  or  before  the  first  premium  payment  has  taken  place  here  in 
this  country. 

D.  STAMP  TAX  FOR  THE  CAPITAL  STOCK-  IN  LIMITED  LIABILITY  COMPANIES. 

A  duty  of  one-half  per  cent  is  due  on  the  placed  capital  stock  of  limited 
liability  companies  and  other  bodies  of  which  the  capital  is  wholly  or  par¬ 
tially  divided  into  shares. 

At  each  issue  or  premium  thereupon  after  November  1,  notice  must  be  given 
to  the  Inspector  of  Finances. 

Tariffs  for  the  receipt  stamp,  for  the  rent  stamp,  and  for  the  commercial 
stamp  can  be  obtained  for  10  cents  at  the  post  offices. 

All  documents  properly  stamped  under  the  old  stamp  ordinance  do  not 
have  to  be  stamped  again.  If  the  documents  have  wrongly  remained  un¬ 
stamped,  then  the  tax  due  can  still  be  paid  without  fine  before  May  1,  1922, 
by  presenting  it  for  stamping  to  the  post  office. 

Preangerbode,  Bandoeng,  N.  I.,  October  26,  1921. 
Notice  for  Officials  and  Private  People: 

I.  Requests  drawn  up  in  any  form,  even  in  the  form  of  letters  and  memo¬ 
ries  addressed  to  the  Government,  officials,  and  colleges  instituted  by  high 
authority  and  to  officials  of  part  of  territory  with  own  means,  require  a 
stamp  of  1.50  florins. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS. 


403 


II.  Exemptions  are :  Medical  certificates  and  requests  for  interior  leave 
on  account  of  illness  and  requests  for  interior  leave  for  important  reasons, 
presented  by  officials  in  fixed  or  temporary  service  with  a  monthly  salary  of 
150  florins  or  less. 

III.  Decrees  of  nomination  or  raise  of  salary  require  a  fixed  tax : 

(a)  In  case  of  a  monthly  salary  less  than  150  florins,  0.50  florin;  in  case 
of  a  monthly  salary  of  150  florins  or  more,  2  florins. 

( b )  In  case  of  raise  of  salary,  if  less  than  10  florins,  0.10  florin;  10  florins 
to  less  than  25  florins,  0.50  florin ;  25  florins  to  less  than  50  florins,  1  florin ; 
50  florins  or  more,  2  florins. 

IV.  The  stamp  tax  under  III  must  be  paid  by  using  a  stamped  paper  issued 
by  the  Government  or  furnished  with  a  special  stamp  and  also  by  using 
postal  stamps. 

V.  Extracts  of  decrees  or  resolutions  containing  leaves  for  the  interior 
because  of  illness  or  important  reasons,  to  bestow  to  persons  interested  who 
are  officials  with  a  monthly  salary  of  less  than  150  florins,  require  a  fixed 
tax  of  0.25  florin. 

INCOME-TAX  ORDINANCE  OF  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

On  the  25th  of  January  the  1921  income-tax  ordinance  (Ordinance 
No.  1  of  1921)  was  passed  by  the  Legislative  Council  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  with  nine  amendments  and  was  assented  to  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernor  General  on  the  27th.  It  was  made  retroactive  to  January  1. 

The  following  sections  and  subsections  are  of  particular  interest 
to  American  companies  doing  business  in  the  colony : 

DEFINITION  OF  INCOME. 

Part  1,  section  2,  subsection  3: 

In  case  of  a  company,  other  than  a  life  insurance  company,  which  is  not  in¬ 
corporated  in  the  colony,  or  of  an  association,  [income  means]  the  net  profits 
of  its  business  arising  or  received  in  the  colony ;  the  net  annual  value  of  lands, 
tenements,  or  hereditaments  owned  by  it  and  situated  in  the  colony ;  interest 
from  any  source  arising  or  received  in  the  colony ;  dividends,  profits,  commis¬ 
sions,  or  bonuses  credited  or  paid  by  any  company,  association,  or  person  aris¬ 
ing  or  received  in  the  colony ;  its  income  from  any  other  source  arising  or  re¬ 
ceived  in  the  colony. 

Subsection  5.  Total  income  means: 

The  total  net  profits  of  its  business  wheresoever  made ;  the  net  annual  value 
of  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments  owned  by  it  wheresoever  the  same  may 
be  situated ;  interest  from  any  source,  whether  within  or  without  the  colony ; 
dividends,  profits,  commissions,  or  bonuses  credited  or  paid  by  any  company, 
association,  or  person  whether  within  or  without  the  colony ;  its  income  from 
any  other  source  wheresoever  arising;  provided  that  in  any  of  these  cases  any 
sum  in  respect  of  income  tax  or  of  any  tax  specially  imposed  for  the  purpose 
of  the  recent  war,  whether  paid  in  this  colony  or  elsewhere,  shall  be  deemed 
to  form  a  part  of  the  total  income. 

EXEMPTIONS  AND  DEDUCTIONS. 

Part  3,  section  7 : 

Any  company,  association,  or  person  whose  principal  place  of  business  is  not 
situated  in  the  colony  and  whose  business  in  the  colony  is  the  sale  of  rubber, 
copra,  or  other  agricultural  produce  or  of  metals  or  minerals  produced  or  won 
by  it  or  him  outside  the  colony  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation  under  this  ordi¬ 
nance  in  respect  of  the  income  arising  from  such  sale. 

Part  3,  section  8,  provides  for  deductions  as  follows : 

The  income  for  religious  institutions;  any  income  on  which  income  tax  has 
been  paid  in  the  United  Kingdom  or  in  British  protectorates,  or  protected 
States,  or  in  any  British  possession ;  income  derived  from  interest  on  securities 
issued  in  respect  to  certain  loans;  incomes  from  an  association  when  the 

19878°— 23 - 27 


404  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA, 


association  is  liable  to  a  tax ;  traveling  allowances ;  the  diminished  value  by 
reason  of  wear  and  tear  on  machinery  or  plant;  interest  on  borrowed  capital 
that  bears  income  tax  in  the  colony  or  is  exempt  from  taxation. 

Part  3,  section  9 : 

A  deduction  shall  not,  in  any  case,  be  made  in  respect  of  the  following  mat¬ 
ters :  (a)  Money  not  wholly  or  exclusively  laid  out  or  expended  for  the  pur¬ 
poses  of  business  carried  on  by  a  company  *  *  *;  (&)  any  loss  or  expense 

which  is  recoverable  under  any  contract  of  insurance  or  indemnity;  (c)  any 
sums  credited  or  paid  as  salaries  to  partners  *  *  *;  (d)  any  loss  not  con¬ 
nected  with  or  arising  out  of  any  business  *  *  *  capital  withdrawn  *  *  * 

loss  or  expenditure  of  a  capital  nature,  or  *  *  *  used  or  intended  to  bei 

used  as  capital  in  any  business ;  *  *  *  capital  used  in  the  improvement 

of  premises  for  the  purpose  of  any  business;  ( h )  any  expenses  of  maintenance 
of  persons  liable  to  tax  *  *  *;  (i)  any  sum  written  off  for  depreciation  in 

value  of  land,  buildings,  or  leases;  (fc)  any  interest  which  might  have  been 
earned  on  any  capital  if  lent  out  at  interest,  provided  that  the  collector  shall 
allow  *  *  *  ( l )  any  bad  debts,  except  bad  debts  proved  to  be  such  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  collector  *  *  *;  (m)  any  sum  paid  as  tax  under  this 

ordinance  or  under  the  war-tax  ordinances  or  as  income  tax  in  any  country 
on  any  income  arising  in  the  colony. 

Part  4,  section  10,  in  re  returns  for  salaries  paid;  section  11,  in 
re  deduction  of  tax  on  salaries. 

'Section  13  provides  for  the  dates  on  which  income  returns  shall 
be  filed  and  for  the  certification.  The  1921  amendment  adds  to  this 
section  the  following  paragraphs: 

AMENDMENT  OF  1921. 

7.  For  the  purposes  of  section  13  of  the  principal  ordinance  the  income  of 
every  company,  association,  or  person  whose  principal  place  of  business  is  not 
situated  in  the  colony,  and  which  or  who  either  as  owner  or  charterer  of  any 
ship  carries  passengers*,  live  stock,  mails,  or  goods  shipped  at  any  port  in  the 
colony,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  full  amount  payable 
to  it  or  him,  whether  such  amount  be  payable  in  or  beyond  the  colony,  in  respect 
of  the  carriage  of  such  passengers,  live  stock,  mails,  and  goods. 

Such  fixed  percentage  shall  be  determined  by  the  collector  at  a  rate  not  less 
than  5  per  cent  or  greater  than  10  per  cent. 

Section  16,  subsection  (1)  : 

In  case  of  a  company  *  *  *  selling  goods  in  the  colony  for  the  account 

of  a  company  *  *  *  whose  principal  place  of  business  is  not  situated  in  the 

colony,  the  company  *  *  *  on  whose  account  such  goods  are  sold  shall, 
if  the  income  can  not  be  otherwise  ascertained  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  col¬ 
lector,  be  deemed  to  have  derived  from  such  sale  an  income  to  be  determined 
by  the  collector,  at  a  figure  not  exceeding  5  per  cent  of  the  price  at  which  the 
goods  were  sold. 

Subsection  (2)  : 

Goods  shall  be  deemed  to  be  sold  in  the  colony  under  subsection  (1)  if  any 
company  *  *  *  in  the  colony  receives  a  commission  in  respect  of  the  sale 
*  *  *  or  is  paid  a  salary  for  obtaining  orders  for  or  for  influencing  the 
sale  of  the  goods. 

Income  tax  shall  be  paid  at  the  rates  set  out  in  the  following  scale, 
according  to  Schedule  A : 

[In  Singapore  dollars;  1  dollar=$0.567  U.  S.  currency.] 


Amount  of  total  income  per  annum :  Per  cent. 

Not  less  than  $5,000  but  less  than  $6,000 _  2 

Not  less  than  $6,000  but  less  than  $7,200 _  3 

Not  less  than  $7,200  but  less  than  $8,400 _  4 

Not  less  than  $8,400  but  less  than  $12,000 _  5 

Not  less  than  $12,000 _  6 


BUSINESS  FACTORS 


405 


The  full  text  of  the  income  tax  ordinance,  1920  (Ordinance  No.  3 
of  1920),  and  of  the  1921  amendments  are  on  file  with  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

EXPORT v  DUTIES,  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 

* 

In  the  table  which  follows  are  given  the  export  duties  of  the  Fed¬ 
erated  Malay  States: 


Article. 


7.  A  gricultural  products. 

Coconuts  and  copra . 

Coffee,  other  than  dry  cherry  or  parchment  coffee,  when 
the  value  is: 

Less  than  $22  per  picul . 

Not  less  than  $22  per  picul  or  more  than  $24 . 

More  than  $24  per  picul  but  not  more  than  $26 . 

More  than  $26  per  picul  but  not  more  than  $28 . 

More  than  $28  per  picul . 

Dry  cherry  coffee . 

Parchment  coffee . 

Gambier . 

Gutta-percha . 

Pepper . . . 

Rubber:  Any  cultivated  rubber  (including  late) — 
When  the  price  as  notified  for  the  time  being  in  the 
Gazette  of  first-grade  rubber  is  50  cents  per  pound 
or  over  but  is  under  $1.50  per  pound. 

When  the  price  as  notified  for  the  time  being  in  the 
Gazette  of  first-grade  rubber  is  $1.50  per  pound 
or  over. 

Sugar . 

Sugar  cane . 

Tapioca . 

II.  Forest  products. 

Rembia  ataps . 

Nipah  ataps: 

(I)  Bertindeh  tulang . 

(II)  Bertumu  tulang . 

(III)  Bertumu  daun . 

(IV)  Other  kinds . 

Getah  rambong  (india  rubber) . 

Formosa  camphor . 

Kepong  bark . 

Mangrove  charcoal . 

Mangrove  firewood  exported  from  Pahang . 

III.  Metals  and  metalliferous  ores. 

Gold . . . 

Tin: 

Tin  smelted  or  manufactured  in  Perak,  Selangor, 
and  Negri  Sembilan— 

When  the  price  of  tin  does  not  exceed  $41  (per 
picul). 

Wnen  the  price  of  tin  exceeds  $41  but  does  not 
exceed  $42. 

When  the  price  of  tin  exceeds  $42  but  does  not 
exceed  $43. 

And  so  on,  the  duty  per  bhara  being  increased 
by  50  cents  for  every  dollar  by  which  the  price 
of  tin  exceeds  $41. 

Tin  smelted  or  manufactured  in  Pahang . 

Tin  ore . 


Rate  of  export  duty. 


H  per  cent  ad  valorem. 


Nil. 

\  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

U  cent  ad  valorem. 

2  per  cent  ad  valorem. . 

2\  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

The  above  duty  calculated  on  one-third  of  the 
gross  weight. 

The  above  duty  calculated  on  two-thirds  of  the 
gross  weight. 

15  cents  per  picul. 

21  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

30  cents  per  picul. 

2\  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  rubber  calculated 
at  the  price  as  notified  for  the  time  being  in  the 
Gazette  of  first-grade  rubber. 

3  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  rubber  calculated  at 
the  price  as  notified  for  the  time  being  in  the 
Gazette  of  first-grade  rubber. 

1  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

1  cent  per  picul. 

2\  per  cent  ad  valorem. 


10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

$1.50  per  1,000. 

$1.00  per  1,000. 

$0.75  per  1,000. 

10  per  cent  of  the  wholesale  price  in  the  centers 
of  production. 

$5.00  per  picul. 

10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


per  cent  ad  valorem. 


$10.00  per  bhara. 
$10.50  per  bhara. 
$11.00  per  bhara. 


10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

72  per  cent  of  the  duty  of  tin,  with  (in  the  case  of 
tin  ore  exported  otherwise  than  under  such 
guaranty  as  the  resident  may  require  that  it 
shall  be  smelted  in  the  Straits  Settlements, 
Australia,  or  the  United  Kingdom)  an  addi¬ 
tional  duty  of  $30  per  picul. 


406  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Article. 


Tin  slag  and  hardhead  tin 


All  other  metals  and  metalliferous  ores . 

IV.  Miscellaneous. 

(PAHANG  ONLY.) 

Fish,  dried: 

Class  A.  (I)  Sharks’  fins . 

Class  A.  (II)  Tenggri,  ikan  merah,  kachang,  selor 
bileh,  bawal,  talang. 

Class  B.  Selor  kuning . 

Class  C.  Pelata,  gelama,  selor  puchat,  lema . 

Class  D.  Kempong,  khe’kheh,  selayang . 

Class  E.  Tamban,  udang,  blachan.  ikan  yu . 

Class  F.  Rampai,  layor,  pari,  duri,  bakau,  budu, 
and  all  other  fish  not  mentioned  above. 

Oysters,  dried,  mother-of-pearl  shell,  and  b^che  de  mer. . 
Horns,  tusks,  hides,  bones,  and  tallow . . . 

(PERAK,  SELANGOR,  AND  NEGRI  SEMBILAN.) 

Blachan . 

Fish,  dried  and  salted . 

Fish  maws,  fish  refuse,  ikan  gelama,  prawns  (dried) 

Oysters,  fresh . 

Oysters,  dried,  mother-of-pearl  shell,  beche  de  mer,  and 
sharks’  fins. 

Horns,  tusks,  hides,  bones,  and  tallow . 

Elephants. 

(PERAK  ONLY.) 

Under  the  powers  vested  in  him  by  section  3  of  the 
“Customs  Duties  Enactment,  1898,”  the  Resident 
of  Perak,  with  the  approval  of  the  Chief  Secretary 
to  Government,  imposes  an  export  duty  of  20  per 
cent  in  respect  of  all  elephants  exported  from  the 
State  of  Perak,  to  come  into  force  from  the  1st  day 
of  November,  1915. 


China  clay  or  kaolin . 

Potash  feld  spar  or  soda  feldspar  intended  for  use  as  a 

flux  or  a  glaze . 

China  stone . 


Rate  of  export  duty. 


At  the  rate  prescribed  for  tin  ore,  unless  the  con¬ 
signment  is  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of 
assay  granted  by  the  Government  Geologist  or 
approved  by  the  Warden  of  Mines,  in  which 
case  the  duty  shall  be  at  the  rate  prescribed  for 
tin  smelted  or  manufactured  on  tne  amount  of 
tin  estimated  to  be- contained  in  such  consign¬ 
ments. 

10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 


$1.50  per  picul. 

$0.75  per  picul. 

$0.60  per  picul. 

$0.50  per  picul. 

$0.40  per  picul. 

$0.30  per  picul. 

$0.15  per  picul. 

10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
Do. 


50  cents  per  picul. 

10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
Do. 

$5  per  picul. 

10  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

.  Do. 


■2\  per  cent  ad  valorem. 


IMPORT  DUTIES. 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES. 


No. 

Goods. 

Scale. 

Duty. 

1 

Earthenware  (baked)  and  porcelain _ _ _  _ 

Value  1 . 

10  per  cent 

6  per  cent. 

2 

Earthenware,  roofing  tiles,  flooring  tiles  and  bricks . 

1  The  declared  value  must  be  the  value  in  customs  bonded  warehouses  (so-called  “entrepdt-waarde'') 
except,  however,  with  regard  to  goods  mentioned  in  the  official  price  list  (so-called  ‘'prijscourant*’),  in 
which  the  value  is  defined  for  the  calculation  of  the  import  and  exports  duties  due  on  the  goods  named 
therein,  which  price  list,  after  consultation  with  the  chambers  of  commerce  and  industry  residing  in  the 
customs  territory,  is  fixed  quarterly  by  the  Director  of  Finance  and  published  as  an  appendix  of  the  official 
gazette,  named  Javasche  Courant. 

By  value  in  customs  bonded  warehouses  is  to  be  understood  the  amount  of  the  first-hand  recently  quoted 
price  in  the  foreign  country  for  c.  i.  f.  delivery  in  the  said  customs  bonded  warehouses  in  Netherlands  India, 
as  the  result  of  a  normal  transaction  of  bargain  and  sale.  This  amount  (i.  e.,  the  value  in  customs  bonded 
warehouses)  in  ordinary  circumstances  (namely,  delivery  not  stipulated  by  contract,  direct  shipment  by 
means  of  the  shortest  route,  and  immediate  importation  after  arrival)  as  a  general  rule  may  be  estimated 
to  agree  with  the  amount  paid  by  the  wholesale  trade  for  the  goods  concerned,  up  to  the  moment  of  being 
entered  in  the  said  customs  bonded  warehouses.  Thus  meaning  the  first-hand  selling  price  at  the  phice 
of  origin  increased  by  the  costs  of  packing,  of  transport,  of  insurance,  and  of  other  shipping  charges,  up  to 
the  moment  of  delivery  into  the  said  customs  bonded  warehouses. 

In  the  above-mentioned  price  list  are  inserted  only  the  goods  of  which.  In  the  opinion  of  the  said  Director 
of  Finance,  the  value  is  to  be  defined  according  to  the  measure,  the  weight,  or  tne  rate  of  sale  used  in  the 
ordinary  business  practice. 


No. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

19 

20 

2 


BUSINESS  FACTORS 


407 


Goods. 


Scale. 


Duty. 


Arrack  leaguers . 

Vinegar . . . . 

Bone  black . 

Beer,  in  barrels . . 

Beer,  bottled . . 

Tin  plate . . 

Tinware . . . . 

Books,  maps,  and  charts;  prints  and  pictures  and  music,  in  sheets 
stitched  or  bound . . 

SPECIAL  PROVISION. 


Value 


Hectoliter 
_ do _ 


Value 


Prints  and  pictures  framed  are  dutiable  as  furniture,  not 
specially  mentioned  (No.  51). 


Free. 

10  per  cent. 
Free. 

7.50  florins. 
8  florins. 
Free. 

12  per  cent. 
Free. 


Gunpowder . 

Cement . 

Beverages,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Eatables,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Donkeys  and  mules . 

Engines  for  factories  and  steam  engines,  machinery,  instruments, 
apparatus,  tools  and  implements  for  agriculture,  manufacturing 
and  engineering,  mining  and  crafts  or  professions;  also  parts 

thereof,  decided  by  the  officials  to  be  such . 

Gambier,  Riouw . . . 

Gambier,  other . 

Yams  and  thread . 

Spirits . . ; . . 


Value . 
Cask . . 
Value. 
...  .do 


Value . . 

100  kilos . 

_ do . 

Value . 

Hectoliter  for 
liquids  con¬ 
taining  50  li¬ 
ters  alcohol 
at  a  temper¬ 
ature  of  15° 
of  the  centi¬ 
grade  ther¬ 
mometer. 


SPECIAL  PROVISIONS. 


6  per  cent. 
40  cents. 

12  per  cent. 

Do. 

Free. 


6  per  cent. 

5  florins. 

20  florins. 

10  per  cent. 

The  amount  of 
the  excise  of 
native  spir¬ 
its.2 


1.  In  case  of  superior  or  inferior  strength  the  quantity  shall  be 
reduced  to  the  alcoholic  standard  of  50  per  cent.  The  instruc¬ 
tions,  instruments,  and  tables  for  gauging  and  reducing  the 
strength  shall  be  fixed  by  the  Governor  General. 

2.  As  regards,  however,  liqueurs  and  other  similar  distilled 
beverages,  prepared  or  mixed  with  substances  preventing  the 
direct  gauging  of  the  strength  simply  by  means  of  hygrometers 
and  thermometers,  such  reduction  is  to  be  made  in  ratio  to  a 
strength  of  75  per  cent,  unless  the  officials  presume  that  liquids 
declared  as  such  beverages  have  an  alcoholic  strength  superior 
to  that  of  75  per  cent .  In  such  case  they  are  authorized  to  insist 
upon  gauging  the  real  strength,  and  the  reduction  must  be  made 
according  to  what  excess  in  strength  is  found. 

3.  Spirits,  not  being  real  liqueurs,  prepared  or  mixed  with 
substances  preventing  the  direct  measuring  of  the  strength  sim¬ 
ply  by  means  of  hygrometers  and  thermometers,  and  of  which 
the  actual  strength  does  not  exceed  the  apparent  strength  by 
more  than  5  per  cent,  shall  not  be  charged  as  “liqueurs  and 
other  similar  distilled  beverages,”  but  according  to  the  real 
strength,  provided  the  importer  in  his  statement  has  not  only 
mentioned  the  apparent  but  also  the  exact  alcoholic  strength 
just  as  declared. 

4.  For  varnish  and  all  other  liquids  prepared  with  alcohol, 
not  being  beverages,  as  well  as  for  wood  spirit  and  all  liquids 
prepared  or  mixed  with  it,  the  reduction  shall  be  made  in  ratio 
to  a  strength  of  100  per  cent. 

5.  The  Governor  General,  however,  may  grant  exemption 
from  import  duty  under  the  necessary  provisions: 

1.  For  wood  spirit  (methyl  alcohol),  or 

2.  For  spirits: 

(а)  Mixed  in  Holland,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
there  for  freedom  of  excise,  with  wood  spirit  or  any  other  sub¬ 
stance  indicated  there  for  making  them  unfit  for  ordinary  use: 

(б)  Made  unfit  in  Netherlands  India  for  ordinary  use,  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  instructions  to  be  given  for  the  purpose  un¬ 
der  official  control,  by  the  addition  of  wood  spirit  or  some  other 
substance  indicated  for  such  purpose  by  the  Governor  General; 

(c)  For  the  purpose  of  preparing  vinegar. 

6.  The  Governor  General  may  also,  under  the  necessary  pro¬ 
visions,  stipulate  that  dyes  and  varnishes  prepared  with  spir¬ 
its  made  unfit  for  the  ordinary  use  are  allowed  to  be  imported 
against  the  payment  of  import  duty  in  accordance  with  the 
tariff  for  “other  paint.” 


.'he  amount  of  this  excise  is  fixed  on  150  florins  per  hectoliter  of  a  strength  of  50  per  cent  and  proportion- 
for  other  quantities  or  strength. 


No. 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 


NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 


Goods. 


Scale. 


Duty. 


special  provisions— continued. 


7.  The  import  duty  on  sulphuric  ether,  chloroform,  and  all 
other  similar  substances  prepared  from  or  with  alcohol  shall  be 
regulated  by  the  Governor  General  by  colonial  ordinance  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  import  duty  on  spirits. 

8.  Spirits  imported  through  customhouses  other  than  those 
specially  designed  for  the  purpose  by  the  Governor  General, 
shall  be  charged  for  varnish  and  liquids  equalized  therewith. 

9.  In  the  case  of  the  import  duty  on  spirits  being  increased  on 
account  of  increased  excise  in  Netherlands  India,  the  Governor 
General  may  establish  regulations  for  additional  payment  of 
such  increase  on  spirits  in  store  above  a  certain  maximum  as 
may  be  fixed  by  him. 


Glass  and  glassware  of  all  kinds . . . 

Gold  and  silver,  leaf . 

Gold,  in  ingots,  bars,  or  pieces,  coined,  and  gold  dust . 

Gold,  gold  and  silver  ware,  lace,  trimming,  and  wire . 

Resin . ' . 

Wood,  sawn  or  unsawn,  shipbuilding  material,  and  timber,  includ¬ 
ing  masts,  spars,  oars,  and  other  round  wood. 

Wooden  ware . 

Ice . 

Iron,  in  bars,  pieces,  rods,  or  plates;  rails,  joints,  and  fishplates  for 
railways;  tubes  for  water  conduits;  iron  gas  pipes,  axles,  axle 
boxes  and  wheels,  cast  or  wrought;  iron  bridges  and  parts  there¬ 
of;  bolts  and  nails;  iron  wire;  telegraph  and  telephone  wire,  and 
cables. 


Value. 

1 . do 

I . 

Value. 


Value 


SPECIAL  PROVISION. 


12  per  cent. 

Do. 

Free. 

12  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 


6  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 


Axles,  axle  boxes,  and  wheels  belonging  to  carriages  are 
charged  as  carriages  (No.  64). 

Iron:  Ships’anchors,  ships’  chains,  ships’  spindles,  ships’  rigging, 
iron  loading  boats  or  lighters,  frames  of  iron  buildings,  sheds  or 
stores,  iron  roofing  and  drains,  either  galvanized  or  not. 

Iron:  Ironware,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Value . 

. do . 

Instruments,  mathematical^  physical,  surgical,  and  optical . 

Jewelry,  pearls,  and  precious  stones,  set  or  unset . 

. 

Candles . 

100  kilos . 

Lime . 

Coconuts  and  coconut  oil . 

Clothing,  made  up,  woven  or  knitted . 

Value . 

Coal  (pit)  and  coke . 

Copper,  crude  and  refined,  wrought  or  rolled,  including  plates  and 
sheets  for  sheathing  ships,  coined  copper,  coining  metal,  copper 
rods  for  crossbeams,  bolts  and  nails,  and  also  copper  and  bronze 
telephone  wire  and  similar  wire  for  electric  transmission. 

Copper:  Copperware,  whether  or  not  lacquered,  gilt  or  painted, 
articles  of  bronze  and  copper  wire,  not  specially  mentioned. 

Small  wares  (mercery,  haberdashery) . 

Value . 

. do..’. . 

SPECIAL  PROVISION. 

If  necessary  the  Governor  General  shall  further  specify  what 
articles  are  to  be  considered  under  this  heading. 

Leather  and  leatherware . 

Value . 

Locomotives  and  their  tenders . 

Lead,  crude,  rolled  and  drawn . 

Lead,  made  up,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Value . 

Manufactures  and  tissues  of  cotton,  linen,  wool,  or  other  fibrous 
material,  ribbon,  lace,  and  trimmings  (not  of  gold  or  silver,  either 
genuine  or  imitated),  and  also  all  other  manufactures  not  differ¬ 
ently  charged. 

SPECIAL  PROVISION. 

The  Governor  General  is  authorized  to  lower  by  colonial 
ordinance  the  import  duty  of  piece  goods  of  cotton  and  half 
wool,  imitation  batiks,  woven  cotton  sarongs,  kains-pandjang 
and  slendangs,  cotton  molton  blankets,  sacks  and  packing  ma¬ 
terial,  with  a  maximum  of  4  per  cent,  when  the  rates  are  such 
that  levying  the  full  amount  would  be  charging  the  population 
too  neavily. 

Manufactures  and  tissues  of  silk,  silk  ribbon,  lace  and  trimming 
and  all  other  silk  goods  not  specially  mentioned,  including  velvet 
goods. 

.  SPECIAL  PROVISION. 

Exclusively  of  silk.  Mixed  material  to  be  charged  as  cotton 
manufactures. 

. do . 

Value . 

6  per  cent. 


12  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 

12  florins. 
Free. 

Do. 

12  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 


12  per  cent. 
6  per  cent. 


12  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 

12  per  cent. 
10  per  cent. 


6  per  cent. 


No. 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 


BUSINESS  FACTORS 


409 


« 


Flour. . . 
Manure. 


Goods. 


SPECIAL  PROVISION. 


Scale. 


Value 


Duty. 


10  per  cent. 
Free. 


Sulphuric  acid,  if  mixed  with  guano  or  ammonium  sulphate, 
may  be  admitted  free  of  import  duty  as  manure.  The  Gov¬ 
ernor  General  regulates  the  proportion  and  mode  of  the  mixing. 


Furniture,  lamps,  not  intended  for  gas  or  electric  light . 

Furniture,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Mineral  waters,  natural  or  artificial . 

Musical  instruments . 

Opium . 

Horses . 

Paper  of  all  kinds,  hangings,  music  paper,  marbled  paper,  card  and 
paste  board,  writing  books  and  registers,  ruled  or  plain. 

Pitch . 

Petroleum . 

Photographic  apparatus  and  parts  thereof . 

Plants,  living . 

Post  and  other  stamps  and  post  cards,  also  foreign,  officially  issued, 
used  or  unused. 

Perfumes  and  perfumery,  not  prepared  with  or  from  alcohol . 

Rice,  husked  or  not . 

Carriages,  and  parts  thereof . 


Value . 

- do . 

100  jars  or  bot¬ 
tles. 

Value . 

100  kilos . 

Value . 

. do . 


Hectoliter 
Value - 


Value 


Value 


10  per  cent. 
12  per  cent. 
6  florins. 

12  per  cent. 
450  florins. 
12  per  cent. 
Do. 

Free. 

40  cents. 

6  per  cent. 
Free. 

Do. 


12  per  cent. 
Free. 

12  per  cent. 


SPECIAL  PROVISION. 

Railway  carriages  and  parts  thereof  are  free. 


Paintings . 

Stationery  and  drawing  materials 


Value 


Free. 

6  per  cent. 


SPECIAL  PROVISION. 

Excepting  paper. 

Playing  cards  (European),  loose  or  in  sheets .  1  kilo. 

Playing  cards  (Chinese),  loose  or  in  sheets . do 

Steel,  in  bars,  sheets,  and  plates,  steel  axles,  rails,  joints,  and  fish-  . 

plates  for  railways. 

SPECIAL  PROVISION. 


1.50  florins. 
0. 25  florin . 
Free. 


Axles  for  carriages  to  be  charged  as  carriages  (No.  64). 


Steel:  Steel  ropes . 

Steel:  Steel  wares,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Sirups,  including  fruit  sirups,  nonalcoholic . 

Tobacco,  tobacco  and  snuff . 

Tobacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes . 

Tar . 

Tea . 

Timekeepers,  watches,  pendulous  clocks,  and  all  other  timekeepers, 
not  specially  mentioned. 

Timekeepers,  clocks . 

Cattle  living,  buffaloes,  and  horned  cattle . 

Cattle,  pigs . 

Cattle,  not  specially  mentioned . 

Paints,  liquid,  in  packages  of  25  kilos  or  less . 

Paints,  other,  turpentine  and  linseed  oil . 

Fish,  salted  or  dried,  not  packed  in  tins,  bottles,  pots,  or  such  like. . 

Meat  of  all  kinds . 

Arms  (fire),  and  parts  thereof . 

Wine,  in  casks . 

Wine,  bottled . 

Wine,  sparkling . 

Seeds,  agricultural . 

Sailcloth . 

Zinc,  crude  and  rolled,  including  lining  plates  and  sheets,  bolts,  and 
nails. 

Zinc:  Zinc  ware,  whether  or  not  varnished,  lacquered,  or  painted.. 

Salt,  table  salt  of  all  kinds,  also  rock  salt . 

Salt,  other  than  the  above  specified,  if  in  the  subdivision  Singkel  of 
the  Government  Atjeh  and  dependencies. 

Salt,  other  than  the  above  specified,  if  elsewhere . 

Salt,  for  industrial  purposes . 


Value . 

_ do - 

100  bottles 
100  kilos... 
_ do _ 


1  kilo 
Value... 

_ do. . 

Per  head 
_ do. . 


Value . 

_ do _ 

_ do. ... 

_ do. ... 

_ do - 

Hectoliter. 

_ do _ 

100  bottles 


Value 


Value... 
100  kilos 
_ do... 

_ do. . 

_ do. . 


SPECIAL  PROVISION. 


The  Governor  General  regulates  the  proper  application  of  this 
duty. 

All  other  goods  not  specially  mentioned  or  not  included  with  the 
above-named  goods. 


Value 


6  per  cent. 
12  per  cent. 

20  florins. 

8  florins. 

100  florins. 
Free. 

40  cents. 

12  per  cent. 

6  per  cent. 

8  florins. 

50  cents. 
Free. 

12  per  cent. 
6  per  cent. 
10  per  cent. 
12  per  cent. 
6  per  cent. 

9  florins. 

10.50  florins 

21  florins. 
Free. 

10  per  cent. 
Free. 

12  per  cent. 
15  florins. 

10  florins. 

6.50  florins. 
2  florins. 


6  per  cent. 


410  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES  AND  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

The  following  are  the  only  duties  levied  on  imports  into  the 
Straits  Settlements: 


[In  Straits  dollars;  1  Straits  dollar =$0,567  U.  S.  mint  par.] 


Article. 


Rate  of  import 
duty. 


Extracts  from  No.  1280. —  The  Liquors  Ordinance,  1909. 


A.  Arrack  or  silent  spirit,  that  is  to  say,  spirituous  liquor  of  whatever  alcoholic 

strength  and  of  whatever  origin  which  has  been  distilled  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
eliminate  all  other  constituents  except  water. 

B.  Brandy,  whisky,  rum,  gin,  liquors,  bitters,  Japanese  saki,  and  Chinese  samsoo, 

including  medicated  samsoo: 

(а)  Containing  not  less  than  85  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

(б)  Containing  less  than  85  per  cent  but  not  less  than  70  per  cent  of  proof  spirit. 

(c)  Containing  less  than  70  per  cent  but  not  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit. 

( d )  Containing  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

C.  Sparkling  wines  containing  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

D.  All  still  wines  (including  medicated  wines)  containing  less  than  40  per  cent  of 

proof  spirit  (excepting  claret  containing  less  than  26  per  cent  of  proof  spirit). 

E.  Claret  containing  less  than  26  per  cent  of  proof  spirit,  and  ale,  beer,  stout,  porter, 

cider,  and  perry. 

F.  Intoxicating  liquors,  not  above  provided  for: 

(I)  If  strflhger  than  proof  spirit . 

(II)  If  containing  less  than  100  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 


$30  per  gallon. 


$9  per  proof  gal. 
$7.20  per  gallon. 
$4.50  per  gallon. 
$3  per  gallon. 
$4.50  per  gallon. 
$3  per  gallon. 

$0.90  per  gallon. 


$18  per  proof  gal. 
$18  per  gallon. 


Extracts  from  No.  1279. —  The  Tobacco  Duties  Ordinance,  1916. 


(а)  Cigars  and  snuff . . 

(б)  Cigarettes . 

(c)  Unmanufactured  tobacco  and  native  tobacco  other  than  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  snuff. 

(d)  Manufactured  tobacco,  not  above  provided  for . 


$1.20  per  pound. 
$0.80  per  pound. 
$20  per  picul. 

$0. 80  per  pound. 


Import  duties  on  matches  and  petroleum  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 

[In  Straits  dollars;  1  Straits  dollar =$0,567  U.  S.  mint  par.] 


Article. 

Rate  of  import 
duty. 

When  the  number  of  matches  per  receptacle  or  box  does  not  exceed  85 . 

Per  case  of  7,200 
boxes. 

$60.00 

When  the  number  of  matches  per  receptacle  or  box  exceeds  85  but  does  not  exceed  95. . 
When  the  number  of  matches  per  receptacle  or  box  exceeds  95  but  does  not  exceed  105. 
When  the  number  of  matches  per  receptacle  or  box  exceeds  105  but  does  not  exceed  115. 
Consignments  exceeding  20  boxes  but  less  than  1  case,  provided  the  number  of  matches 
per  box  is  less  than  115 . 

65.00 

70.00 

72.00 

Per  box. 

.01 

Consignments  of  less  than  20  boxes . . . 

Free- 

Petroleum  not  inelnfh'ne  linnirl  nrodnets  with  a  flash  noinf,  higher  than  150° . 

Per  gallon. 

.10 

The  exemptions  and  other  regulations  are  not  given.  There  are 
occasional  changes  in  the  tariff  by  executive  order.  Exporters  may 
obtain  the  latest  changes  from  the  Tariff  Division  of  the  Bureau 
of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 


BUSINESS  FACTORS 


411 


FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 

Following  are  the  import  duties  of  the  Federated  Malay  States: 

[in  Straits  dollars;  1  Straits  dollar=$0.567  U.  S.  mint  par.l 


Article. 

Rate  of  import 
duty. 

Table  A. 

A.  Arrack  or  silent  spirit,  that  is  to  say,  spirituous  liquor  of  whatever  alcoholic 

strength  and  of  whatever  origin  which  has  been  distilled  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  eliminate  other  constituents  except  water. 

B.  Brandy,  whisky,  rum,  gin,  liqueurs,  bitters,  Japanese  saki,  and  Chinese  samsoo, 

including  medicated  samsoo: 

(а)  Containing  not  less  than  85  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

(б)  Containing  less  than  85  per  cent  but  not  less  than  70  per  cent  of  proof 

spirit. 

(c)  Containing  less  than  70  per  cent  but  not  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof 

spirit. 

(d)  Containing  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

C.  Sparkling  wines  containing  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

D.  All  still  wines  (including  such  medicated  wines  as  have  not  been  declared  by  the 

Chief  Secretary  under  section  2-A  of  “  The  Excise  Enactment,  1915”)  contain¬ 
ing  less  than  40  per  cent  of  proof  spirit  (excepting  claret  containing  less  than  26 
per  cent  of  proof  spirit). 

E.  Claret  containing  less  than  26  per  cent  of  proof  spirit  and  ale,  beer,  stout,  porter, 

cider,  and  perry. 

F.  Intoxicating  liquors  not  above  provided  for: 

(I)  If  stronger  than  proof  spirit . 

(II)  If  containing  less  than  100  per  cent  of  proof  spirit . 

$20  per  gallon. 

$6  per  proof  gallon. 
$4.80  per  gallon. 

$3  per  gallon. 

$2  per  gallon. 

$3  per  gallon. 

$2  per  gallon. 

$0.60  per  gallon. 

$12  per  proof  gallon. 
$12  per  gallon. 

“  The  Customs  Enactment,  1920.” 

In  exercise  of  the  powers  conferred  upon  him  by  section  5  (I)  of  “  The  Customs 
Enactment,  1920:”  the  Chief  Secretary  to  Government  imposes,  with  effect  from  the 
date  of  the  publication  hereof,  an  import  duty  on  alum  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per 

pound. 

Provided  that  alum  may  be  imported  duty  free  if  imported  under  and  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  conditions  of  a  license  to  import  granted  by  the  British  resident  of  the 
State  in  which  the  importer  is  resident  or  carrying  on  his  business  or  trade,  which 
license  must  be  produced  to  the  principal  officer  of  customs  at  the  port  or  place  of 
import.  The  object  of  this  import  duty  is  to  prevent  the  use  of  alum  as  a  coagulant 
of  rubber. 

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(MEINDERTSDROOGTE) 


Railways. 

Tramway • 

Railways  in  Construction. 


P.  PRENDJANA 


O  -  Ootnotng  =  mounts.  <i  la/to  denoted  oy  gob  —  geoe'gte I 
TJL  =  tali  =  fiver 

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Date  Due 


TfAt 

<WLl^£: 

1“^/  - 

(7 

/* 

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0;  npn  1 

|fn 

&  Z£ut 

BOSTON  COLLEGE 


9031 


01197954 


(?0866 


!  /  ' 

BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  HEIGHTS 
CHESTNUT  HILL,  MASS. 

Books  may  be  kept  for  two  weeks  and  may  be 
renewed  for  the  same  period,  unless  reserved. 

Two  cents  a  day  is  charged  for  each  book  kept 
overtime. 

If  you  cannot  find  what  you  want,  ask  the 
Librarian  who  will  be  glad  to  help  you. 

The  borrower  is  responsible  for  books  drawn 
on  his  card  and  for  all  fines  accruing  on  the  same. 


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